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TRANSAOTIOI^S

OF THE

New York Academy of Sciences.

PRESS OF

8TETTINER, LAMBERT i Ci;

t2, 24 ^ 2i READE ST.,

NEW YORK.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

New York Academy of Sciences

LATE

LYCEUM OF NATUKAL HISTORY.

VOLUME X.

October, 1890, to June, 1891.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

f^ARDEN.

Edited by the Recording Secretary assisted by the Publication Committee.

NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY,

. K 6GI

V -■

lO-i

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

1891-1892.

JoHX S. Xewberry,
Oliver P. Hubbard. J. A. Allen.

Thomas L. Casey.

H. Carrixgton Bolton.

Henry Dudley.

John I. Northrop.
SowiiciC.

N. L. Britton,
J. K. Rees,
D. S. Martin,

Geo. F. Kunz,
N. L. Britton,

Stvtator^.

a. a. julien,
Charles F. Cox,
.J. J. Stevenson.

John I. ISTorthrop,
D. S. Martin,

H. T. Vulte.

eFivta-M-cc. £o»tnuilte-e.

John H. Hinton, Chairvian, H. G. ^Iarquand, O. B. Potter.

Cctiuiiit'tee oF 2ii6fication.

T. L. Casey, Chairman, D. S. Martin, J. S. Ne-s\berry,

J. A. Allen, H. Carrington Bolton, J. K. Rees.

Coi'VUVtitt'ee on QloMititatioud.
Entire Council.

£i6raTu (Eoiiuuittee.

N. L. Britton, Chairman, A. A. Julien,

C. F. Cox, J. S. Newberry, .

J. A. Allen.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

TABLE OF CONTENTS. gak —

Volume X.

PAGE

Decease of Members .56, 120

Election of Members 49, 55, 85, 113, 118

Election of Officers 70, 116

Memorial Notices 56, 120

Lectures 44, 47, 54, 66. 109, 116, 119

Minutes of Meetings:

Annual Meeting 66

Business Meetings 1, 35, 46, 49, 55, 85, 113

Adjourned Business Meeting 46

Stated Meetings.. 4, 23, 28, 37, 39, 47, 52, 53, 54, 56, 66, 103, 109, 111,

115, 116, 118, 119

Special Meeting 45

Sections 85, 109, 116, 119, 120

Reports:

Recording Secretary 67

Corresponding Secretary 69

Council 1, 35, 46, 49, 55, 67, 85

Audubon Monument Committee. . 69

Special Committees 49, 111, 113,-115, 116

Treasurer 68

Resolutions, 46,53

Amendments to By-Laws 49, 55

Constitution and By-Laws Supplement

List of Members and Fellows Supplement

PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY.

J. A. ALLEN.

PAGE

The Geographical Distribution of North American Mammals 54

Recent Work in North American Mammalogy 71

H. CARRINGTON BOLTON.

Note on Hydrazoic Acid, a New Mineral Acid 43

Researches on Musical Sand in the Hawaiian Islands and in Cali-
fornia 28

Some Hawaiian Pastimes 45-

22
I

PAGE

yi CONTENTS.

THOMAS L. CASEY.

Coleopterological Notices, No. II. (title) 2

FRANK M. CHAPMAN.

The Origin of the Avefauna of the Bahamas 54 ,

HAROLD JACOBY.

On the Calculation of Star Places for Zenith Telescope Observations 86
The United States Eclipse Expedition to West Africa, 1889-90 47

A. A. JULIEN.

On the Microbe of Phosphorescent Wood 37

GEORGE F. KUNZ.

The Discovery of Diamonds at Plum Creek, Rock Elm Township,
Pearce Co., Wis 49

The Discovery of Fire Opals near Whelan, Wash .. 50

The Phosphorescence of the Diamond after Exposure to Sunlight,
and also by Friction 50

On some New and Interesting Occurrences of Minerals and Precious
Stones in the United States 56

L. H. LAUDY.

Adaptation of the Arc Light to Projections 103

Electric Meters 118

A. R. LEDODX.

Notes on the Sweet Grass Hills of Montana and the Kootenai Mines
of British Columbia 57

A. R. LEEDS.

The Discovery of a Starch-digesting Ferment in Cow's Milk, and its

Relation to Nutrition 66

The Precipitation of Suspended Silt and Clay in River Waters 66

W. GOOLD LEVISON.

Note on an Economical Zinc Element for Bunsen Batteries 114

Note on Photomicrographs from Photographs of Lightning 114

J. S. NEWBERRY.

On the Geological Age and Relations of the Potomac Group of Vir-
ginia and Maryland 36

CONTENTS. Vll

W. W. NEWELL.

PAGE

The Practice of Conjuring Noxious Animals, as Surviving in the

Folk-Lore of Nevr England 45

JOHN I. NORTHROP.

Bahaman Birds 52

Notes on the Geology of the Bahamas 4

HENRY M. PARKHURST.

Stellar Photometry 117

CHARLES LANE POOR.

The History of Lexell's Comet from 1770 to 1890 119

J. K. REES.

Remarks on the Reduction of Rutherford Star Plates 102

HEINRICH RIES,

Note on Rock Exposures on New York Island 113

FREDERICK STARR.

Some Winnebago Arts 39

Man of the Stone Age ^ 109

OILMAN S. STANTON.

The Occurrence of Beryls and Garnets on Nevir York Island 50

JOHN TATLOCK, JR.

An Index to " Copernicus," an InternationalJournalof Astronomy. 87

L. J. VANCE.

Three Lessons in Rhabdomancy 45

H. T. VULTE.

Notes on the Analysis of Grains and Cereals 24

R. P. WHITFIELD.

Contributions to Invertebrate Palaeontology 4

J. FRANCIS WILLIAMS.

Monticellite, a New Mineral 70

Vill CONTENTS.

LECTURES OF THE PUBLIC COURSE OF 1890-9L
November 24, 1890.

FREDERICK H. CHAPIN, ESQ.

PAGE

Cliff Dwellings of the Mancos Canons 44

December 15, 1890.

H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, PH.D.

Life and Scenes in the Hawaiian Islands 47

January 19, 1891.

PROF. A. J. DUBOIS.

Science and Miracle 54

February 16, 1891.

W. GOOLD LEVISON.

Instantaneous Photography as an Aid to Science, History, and Art. 66

March 16, 1891.

PROF. CHARLES SPRAGUE SMITH.

The Orkneys and Shetland 109

April 20, 1891.

FRANCIS B. CROCKER, E.M.

Practical Applications of Electricity 1 16

3Iay 18, 1891.

CHARLES F. COX, A.M.

What is a Diatom ? 119

TEAIsrSAOTIONS

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

October 6th, 1890.

Eegular Business Meeting.

The President, Dr. Newberry, in the chair.

In consequence of the very inclement weather, the attendance
was somewhat limited, only fifteen persons being present.

The minutes of the previous meeting (June 9th) were read
and approved.

The report of the Council (October 2d) was read, recom-
mending :

I. The payment of the following bills:

Publication of the Annals, Vol. V., Nos. 7 and 8.. $180. 21
Publication of the Transactions, Vol. IX., Nos.

6, 7, and 8 , 203.49

Minor expenses 29 , 42

II. Price of single numbers of the Transactions to non-
members shall be fifty cents, extra copies to members twenty-
five cents each. Authors will be allowed 25 copies of separates
free, if desired. Back numbers of the current volume will be
furnished at half price to members joining during the sessional

2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 6,

year. Authors making considerable alterations in the proof of
their papers, will be charged current rates.

III. The appropriation of the following sums of money :

For binding books in Library 1100 . 00

For salary of Assistant Recording Secretary 100.00

For office expenses of Recording Secretary 25.00

IV. The election as Resident Members of

Dr. David E. Barry,
OsBORN R. Lamb.
Mr. Lamb has since become a Life Member.

In consequence of removal from New York City to the Pacific
coast, Captain A, W. Vogdes presented his resignation as Libra-
rian in a letter, which was accepted with regret. Dr. Johx I.
Northrop was nominated and unanimously elected to the va-
cancy, and received the trust in a few well-chosen words. Capt.
Vogdes and Dr. Meade Bolton were transferred to the list of
Corresponding Members.

The following name was placed in nomination as Correspond-
ing Member by the Recording Secretary :

Professor W. D. Alexander,
of Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.

The following paper was read by title:

coleopterological notices, no. 2,
by thomas l. casey'.

President Newberry then announced that, in conformity
•with custom and the notices for tlie evening, the members pres-
ent were invited to speak of the places or objects of interest
visited or seen during the summer vacation. Responses were
made as follows:

Mr. L. H. Jacoby said that he had lately returned from
South Africa, having been a member of the U. S. Eclipse Ex-
pedition; that astronomically the expedition had been a failure,
•on account of cloudy weather; but that later in the season he

1890.] NEW YOKK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 3

would give the Academy an account of some subjects of interest
connected with the expedition.

Dr. Northrop stated that he had returned from the Bahama
Islands during the summer, where he had spent several months
studying their geological features, and had made collections of
their flora and fauna of considerable interest. In a short time
he intended reading a paper before the Academy, giving the re-
sults of his studies in this interesting group of islands. Inci-
dentally Dr. Northrop remarked that he had lately seen a
turkey buzzard at Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, N. Y,, and stated
that this bird is rarely, if ever, seen so far North.

Dr. Bolton, who had lately returned from a trip to the
Hawaiian Islands and California, after an absence of nearly seven
months, stated that he had been remarkably successful in his
search for sonorous sand, and had enjoyed a very pleasant trip,
going and coming. He gave a brief description of the places vis-
'ited, and excused his brevity on the score of presenting details
to the Academy during the coming winter.

Dr. Newberry said that the summer had been a busy one.
Early in the vacation he made a visit to Silver Cliff, Colorado,
on his return finishing his Monographs on the Laramie Flora
and the Amboy Clays. He had also studied the flora of the
coal basin of the Creat Falls of the Missouri. At first no fossils
were found ; finally, in a railroad cut in the vicinity, remains of
ferns and conifers were discovered; these belong to the Potomac
Group of the Lower Cretaceous.

Dr. Britton said that he had been closely engaged in bo-
tanical work, but found leisure to visit Indianapolis, being
present at the meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, where he had a very pleasant time.

4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 13^

October 13th, 1890.
Stated Meeting.
The President, Dr. Newberry, in the chair.
About twenty-five persons present.
The minutes of October 6th were read and approved.
The following paper was read by title :

CONTRIBUTIONS TO INVERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY.
BY PROF. R. P. WHITFIELD.

Mr. L. H. Jacoby exhibited two fine specimens of crocido-
lite from the Orange Free State, Africa, one in the rough, the
other a polished sphere. The exhibitor said that he had pur-
chased the specimens, and could not give the locality from which
they came. Dr. Newberry explained the composition and
physical character of the mineral, and stated that nothing was
known of the existing deposits.

The following paper was then read by Dr. John I. North-
rop :

NOTES on the GEOLOGY OF THE BAHAMAS.

(Abstract.)

By far the greater number of the islands known as the Baha-
mas, are situated on the Great and the Little Bahama Banks.
The former occupies a large area southeast of Florida and north
of Cuba, and is penetrated in the northern part in a remarkable
manner by a tongue of the ocean in which the water is over
seven hundred fathoms in depth. Little Bahama Bank lies
north of the Great one and is much smaller.

The islands lie, almost without exception, on the northern and
eastern edges of the banks, the main exception being the island
of Great Bahama, which is situated on the southern edge of Lit-
tle Bahama Bank. Southeast of the Great Bank is a small one,
on which are Crooked and Acklin islands, the former on the
northern, the latter on the eastern edge.

The Caicos Bank lies still farther southeast and contains on
its northern border a number of small islands. The rest of the

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 5

group — viz., the islands of San Salvador, Eum Cay, Atvvood's
■Cay, Mariguana, and Little and Great Inagua — are differently
situated from those previously mentioned, rising almost ab-
ruptly from the deep ocean.

The time spent in the Bahamas was a little more than six
months, two of which were passed in New Providence and the
rest in Andros. The former is well known as the seat of gov-
ernment and as a health resort. It lies on the northern edge of
a portion of the Great Bahama Bank, and is about twenty miles
long and seven in width. A ridge runs along the northern side,
the highest point of which is lu9 feet above sea-level, and is
occupied by an old fort — Fort Fincastle. Here a fine view of
the general features of the island may be obtained. To the
south stretches a low, level country dotted here and there with
cocoanut groves, and in the distance is seen a lower ridge,
known as the Blue Hills. To the north we look over the har-
bor, half a mile in width, to Hog Island, a cay about four miles
long, perhaps half a mile wide, and about twenty feet high. The
eastern end is separated by a narrow piece of water, known as
the " Sea Garden,'' from Athol or Long Island, locally known
as Quarantine Station, a cay about two miles long and but a
quarter-mile wide, and continued eastward by narrow shoals.
West of Hog Island is the channel, or, as it is called, '' the bar,"
on the other side of which a number of small cays continue the
same general direction as the longer axis of the island. Sea-
ward of Hog Island, and separated from it by about one mile of
water, is Salt Cay, an island about two miles in length and a
quarter in^width. Farther to the north and outside of Quaran-
tine Station is Rose Island, another long, narrow cay. Outside
of all lies the reef. These facts have been given with perhaps
more detail than is interesting, but which, nev^ertheless, is ne-
cessary, as it has a bearing upon what follows.

Andros Island is the largest of the Bahama group, being
over ninety miles long and between forty and fifty miles wide.
The northern portion is separated from the southern by a broad,
shallow sheet of water that contains many cays, large and
small, and the passages through from the eastern to the western
coast are known as bights. It is interesting to note that Andros
is not only the largest of the Bahama islands, but the largest
coral island in the world, its northern half alone having a super-
ficial area of over 1,200 square miles, while the area of the whole
island, so-called, is over 1,900. It lies near the eastern edge of
the bank that faces the tongue of ocean referred to above.

The eastern side of Andros is occupied by a ridge, of which
the highest point that I visited, and I think the highest on the

6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 13,

island, is marked on the chart as Salvador Point, locally known
as Bearing Point. Its height I had no means of determining,
but I judged it to be about 100 feet. At the extreme southern
end, as at Grassy Creek, this ridge is absent and the land is
low.

"When one has crossed the ridge, wliich is covered with angio-
spermous trees, he enters a large forest of Finus baliamensis
which occupies the greater portion of the interior of the island.
The land is here almost level, and in some places, as near
Loggerhead Creek and Wide Opening, there are extensive lakes
of fresh water. Upon passing through the pines and reaching
the west side, one comes to the most remarkable feature, how-
ever, of the island. Here one sees spread out before him, as far
as the eye can reach, a low, swampy country covered with small
mangroves, Conocarpus and Avicennia, bounded on one side by
the water, and sometimes, in the distance, by a dark line of
pines. The pines, however, frequently jut out in points that
approach quite close to the water's edge. This level, swampy
land is locally known by the very appropriate name of ^' swash."
To the west of the land stretches the Great Bahama Bank for
a distance of from fifty to seventy miles, and the slope of the
bottom is so exceedingly slight that at the distance of seventy
miles from shore the water is but three or four fathoms deep.
The bank then plunges suddenly into the ocean beyond.

There are many creeks on the island, and the water in all, at
a distance of ten or fifteen miles from the mouth, is drinkable.
Many little streams of fresh water flow into these creeks, thus
partially draining the immense area of swash.

The creeks are generally narrow and winding, and by wearing
away the land on the convex side of the curves change the char-
acter of the surface of the country. This was most plainly
seen up Cabbage Creek, near Wide Opening, on the west side.
Here, as the creek wore its way into the land, it was followed
on the concave side by a growth of small mangroves, while its
convex side was fringed with palmettos. As the creek, in wind-
ing, changed its course, the palmettos and mangroves changed
sides, as it were, the former always on the outside of the curve,
thus making quite a striking alteration in the appearance of the
landscape.

The surface on the western side of Andros is composed of an
exceedingly fine, almost impalpable calcareous coral *'mud'*
that also forms the bottom of the shallow water that covers
the bank. As we go back from the water's edge this deposit
becomes harder and harder, until finally it is cemented into a
hard, very fine-grained rock that is very different in appearance

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 7

from the rock of the eastern coast. The latter is ^olian and
varies in texture. In some places it is quite coarse and in others
fine, but always composed of rounded grains of coral sand or
comminuted shells. In some places, as at Conch Rock, near
Conch Sound, the rock has been so altered as to resemble a
dark-gray crystalline limestone. In one place only did I see
the contact between the ^Eolian formation and the true coal rock.
This was on Andros near the entrance to Fresh Creek, where a
vertical face about ten feet in height was exposed. The lower
four feet were composed of fragments of coral stems, mostly a
madrepore, probably M. cervicormis, but so eroded as to make
identification impossible. Above this lay the ^olian rock, the
contact being sharp and distinct, and the contrast between the
laminated appearance of the one and the irregular surface of
the other being very striking. While no masses of corals were
to be seen, that were undoubtedly standing as they grew, the
fragments, some of them about a foot in length, were crowded
together and presented the same appearance as I had seen in
places in the reef at Nicols Town, where the branches of M.
cer'vicornus had been broken off and lay in a heap on the bot-
tom. The striking contrast between the ^olian rock above and
that in which the corals were, showed plainly that the two rocks
were formed under different circumstances, and that the lower
stratum liad been formed underwater, for it showed none of the
characteristics of beach or wind-drifted deposits. Although this
is the only place where elevated corals were found in profusion,
in many other localities, as at Nicols Town and Mastic Point,
Andros, a few fossil corals were found embedded in the rock
and evidently in place. The most common coral thus found
was a Ma?andrina, probably the same as now living on the shore
near low- water mark — a circular, flat species.

In Nassau excellent sections of the rock can be seen in an
old quarry, the " Queen's Staircase." and in the present quarry.
In the first of these places the section is, I believe, ninety feet
high, and the rock is entirely ^Eolian. The most common fossil
is a species of Strophia that I suspect will prove different from
those now living on the island.' A few helicoid shells were col-
lected, and parts of a crab were noted, but only one or two
marine shells, a Pissurella, and fragments of a lamellibranch
were obtained. These facts all indicate the ^Eolian origin of the
deposit.

^ My thanks are due to Prof. Dall, who has kindly examined my
Strophias, and who is inclined to provisionally refer some of the fossil
forms to S. maritima Pfr. , and states that others seem to connect inari-
tima with forms like Glans Kust. which I found living on Andros.

8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oCT. 13,

Surface Deposits.

There is practically no soil either on New Providence or An-
dros, except the little that collects in the caves and holes in the
rock. From the caves a large quantity of cave earth has been
taken and sold as a fertilizer, with what result I do not know. I
was told that guano had been found on Andros, but I saw none.
The earths I collected I have treated with hydrochloric acid, and
the results indicate a great variation in composition. In some,
most of the material is soluble with strong effervescence, but in
others the residual, I suspect, will prove greater than the soluble
portion. The residue seems to be composed of organic material,
with some mineral constituents that contain an appreciable
quantity of iron. Dr. Waller, of the School of Mines, Columbia
College, has kindly offered to analyze my material, and we hope
from the results to draw some conclusions as to its origin. At
present it seems as if the earthy deposits are composed of the
insoluble portions of the coal rock mixed with vegetable par-
ticles.

The absence of any large quantity of fallen leaves is very notice-
able. In the " Pine Yard," as the pine woods are locally called,
we did not see a single fallen pine, but the depressions in the
ground showed where one had formerly stood, and a long, shallow
trough plainly indicated where the fallen trunk had lain. Desic-
cation and decay take place with astonishing rapidity, and I be-
lieve that the deposits found in the caves are greatly added to
by the comminuted particles of dried vegetable matter, and the
residue of the decomj)osed portions, both of which would be
washed in by rain-water.

On the ' ' swash " on the west coast of Andros a peculiar
ash-like deposit was noticed that covered small circular areas.
This on examination proved to be composed of soft, elastic lumps
coated with calcareous material. These lumps under the micro-
scope were seen to be composed of one of the small, probably
fresh-water, alga^ that had grown in the pools of water, and
which had been left when the pools had dried.

Erosion,

One of the most striking geological changes taking place in
the Bahamas is the erosion of both the surface and the shore
line of the islands.

West of Xassau, on the beach, are many places where the waves
have cut narrow passages into the rocks and ground the frag-
ments into sand. There are also a number of "pot-holes":
these were circular in horizontal sections, and the bottom and

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 9

sides were smooth. They contained the worm coral heads that
had evidently been the means of making the holes.

On the beach of the cays north of Nassau great blocks of
coral rock are seen that have been dislodged by the waves, and
in some places fresh fractures show where large fragments have
been broken off. On the south side of the cays the erosion is
different. Here the water is quiet and eats slowly under the
rock, so that a projecting ledge is formed that marks the height
of the tide.

At some places on Andros, as at Fresh Creek and Nicols Town,
the shore is undermined, and great slabs in places have fallen,
thus making large cracks. Similar cracks are found inland
higher above high-water mark, and have evidently been formed in
the same manner as those on the shore. Where the edges of the
crack were in contact they had been firmly cemented together,
and at intervals along the line of the crack were numerous large
holes that had evidently been worn out by the action of rain-
water running over the edge. Leading into these holes were
channels almost as perfectly formed and rounded as a tin gutter.

The erosion of the surface will impress every one that visits
the Bahamas. Sharp, jagged points project so as to make walk-
ing tiresome and annoying. Although there is some sand near
the beach west of the Barracks at Nassau, there are no great
moving masses such as Heilprin describes as being found in
Bermuda.'

In some places, as on Goat Cay, near Fresh Creek, Andros, the
surface is eroded in a peculiar and striking manner. Tliere the
rock is worn so as to leave vertical cylindrical masses two or
three feet high,- some connected below or half-way up with eacli
other, others separate. Their sides and tops are pitted and
eroded, so they have evidently been affected by atmospheric
agencies. On the ocean side of this cay the erosion from the ac-
tion of the surf was so exceedingly rapid, that the rock remained a
light yellowish color instead of the dull or dark gray it commonly
assumes. The form the rock here presented was even more
striking than the cylindrical masses described above. It was
worn into innumerable peaks and pinnacles like a miniature
mountain range, the points and edges of the pyramidal projec-
tions being sharp and clean. As we walked back from the edge
of the cay, every gradation could be found between the miniature
peaks and the cylindrical masses higher up. And I believe that
the latter are what remains after the edges of the little peaks
and pyramids have been slowly worn away by the action of
atmospheric agencies ; for we have only to round off the points

1 " The Bermuda Islands," p. 31.

10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 13,

and deepen the connecting ridges to produce the vertical cylin-
drical masses. But in order that this could have occurred, it
will be necessary to suppose that the island has been elevated,
and this, as I hope to sliow, I believe has been the case.

Outliers.

In many places near Andros, as at Mastic Point and Golden
Cay, there are cays separated from the island by water but a few
feet in depth, and in some places these cays make a prolonga-
tion of a point with which I believe they were formerly con-
nected, and have been cut off, not by subsidence, but by ero-
sion. There are other cays, as those near Nassau, that, as I
hope to be able to show, owe their origin to another source.

Caves.

One of " the sights " at Nassau are '' The Caves," about seven
miles west of the city. One of these is an irregular opening in
the north side of a hill that faces the sea. The floor is con-
siderably above high-water mark. In the back of the first
chamber is a small opening through which can be seen a deeper
chamber, in the bottom of which is water. This chamber is
said to connect with the cave on the opposite side of the same
hill. This second cave is a long chamber about fifteen or twenty
feet in height, and the roof contains holes through which the
roots of trees pass and fasten into the floor below. The side
wall of the cave for a distance ef about four feet from the
ground projected about six inches beyond the upper part of the
wall, thus forming a shelf that was quite level and ran the en-
tire length of the chamber, a distance of perhaps one hundred
feet. I could only explain the formation of this shelf by sup-
posing that it represented the contact between two deposits, and
that the upper had yielded more rapidly than the lower to ero-
sion.

On Andros I saw a number of caves near the northern part of
the island. All were in the sides of the elevated portions. The
openings in some, as one near Nicols Town, were small, barely
as large as an ordinary door. Others were simply excavations
in the side of the hills.

In some places, as near Nicols Town and Mastic Point, small
caves were found, twenty to forty feet above high-water mark;,
and the low, vertical cliffs in which they were, indicated the ex-
istence of an old shore line, for the rocks were undermined in
the same manner as those we now see on the present shore.

In some of these caves Indian relics have been found, and also
human bones, and I obtained a portion of a human humerus
from one on Andros.

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 11

Ocean-Holes.

Near the caves at Nicols Town was a hole known as the
" Ocean-Hole.'' It was abont one hundred feet in diameter and
perhaps forty feet in depth, and contained a pool of brackish
"water. In one place the wall had been excavated so as to form
a small cave, while the rest was quite steep and covered with
trees and large blocks of coral rock. In one place was a very
marked nnconformability in the rock, the seeming strata below
lying at an angle of about thirty degrees, while above the layers
were horizontal. This was probably only an unusual arrange-
ment of the ^olian formation; but in the Queen's Staircase,
where an unusually fine section is exposed, the layers lie at dif-
ferent angles, but are wedged in between each other, as it were,
and no such sharp nnconformability as that above described is
to be seen.

The name '' ocean-hole " is also applied by the natives of An-
dres to deep holes under the water. Some of these are remark-
able. The first that I saw was near Mangrove Cay. Here,
close to the shore, was a nearly circular hole at least 100 feet in
diameter, and in which the water was said to be over 18 fathoms
(104 feet) in depth. I did not have an opportunity of sounding
it, but the dark blue color of the water told its own story.

While sailing up Fresh Creek, Andros, we came to another
ocean-hole, which I examined. It was about ten miles from
the mouth of the creek, close to the northern bank, and about
one hundred feet in diameter. From the shore the water for a
distance of about fifteen feet was two feet in depth, and then
suddenly deepened to eighteen feet over a jirojectiug ledge.
Sounding across the hole did not show a greater depth. The
bottom of the hole was of soft coral mud. The bottom of the
creek surrounding the hole was covered with about two feet of
water, and in some places gradually sloped into the hole. Still
farther up the creek another hole was seen, but was not exam-
ined. The most remarkable ocean-hole that I saw was one near
Grassy Creek, near the southern end of the east side of Andros.
The diameter was about one hundred and fifty feet, and the
shore itself formed one edge of the hole. The sides were of sand
at its angle of repose for a depth of about six or seven feet be-
low, and resting on an overhanging ledge of rock. Where the
tide had fallen it left the hole surrounded by at least a quarter-
mile of sand flat on the ocean side, while, as stated above, the
shore formed the rest of the boundary. This hole I sounded
with all the line I possessed, but at twenty fathoms the weight
was cut ofE and I was unable to obtain another to continue the

12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oCT. 13,

sounding. The captain of our boab, a reliable man^ told me
that in the '*Pine Yard " was a liole similar to this one, in which
he had found no bottom with a line over thirty fathoms in
length. Before attempting to explain the formation of these
ocean-holes it will be well to describe what the natives call

Boiling-Holes.

The first of these I was shown on Andros in a small creek
that runs into Conch Sound. The top of the hole was about
a foot under water at low tide, and close to the mangroves that
formed the side of the creek. It was about seven feet in length
and about two or three wide. Below the diameter increased,
forming an overhanging ledge. When the tide was low in the
creek, but rising outside, the clear sea-water could be distinctly
seen ascending, thus producing the same appearance as that
presented by a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. Suspended
particles could also be seen rising.

While sailing past Eat Cay, near Mastic Point, another ''boil-
ing-hole^' was seen that was apparently about ten feet in diame-
ter, and from a distance we could see a perceptible "boil" on
the surface that was undoubtedly caused by the rising water.
Our captain said that when the tide was falling the water in the
hole went " down and round " — which statement I believe, as the
water was rising with some force, and probably ran out again
with sufficient rapidity to cause a small whirlpool. In another
boiling-hole near Mangrove Cay the water was seen ascending.

These facts prove not only that an underground connection
exists between these holes and the ocean, but that the connec-
tion is an open one, so that the water can flow freely through
it, and thus the pressure resulting from the passing tidal wave
is shown before the tide commences to rise on the shore. The
ocean-holes, I believe, can be explained by supposing them to
be old boiling-holes in which the connection has been stopped
up, and their greater size caused by the falling-in of the ledge
on the edge, which would aid in the stoppage. I regret that I
have no facts to offer on the depth of the boiling-holes, for the
only one I stopped to examine was at Conch Sound, and this one
ran under the ledge, so that its depth could not be determined.
The ocean-hole at Nicols Town, described above, is also, I believe,
an old ocean-hole now elevated.

Banana-Holes.

These are holes found mainly on the elevated parts of the land
on both New Providence and Andros. They contain a quantity

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 13

of earth in the bottom, in which the natives plant their bananas,
and hence the name.

In shape and dimensions these holes vary greatly. Some are
cylindrical, abont four feet in diameter, but at the same time
twenty feet or more in depth. Others are from ten to twenty-
five feet across, and some even larger, and often of an irregular
shape and mucli longer than wide.

The walls are often excavated below, so that the side becomes
an overhanging ledge and forms a small cave. In some a cave
begins at the side of the hole and runs backward. It is hence
hard to draw the line between these holes and the caves. There
are also holes that are not called banana-holes, but which may
be here described, as they differ only in shape. In some the
opening is barely large enough to allow a man to pass. One
such I descended, and found that below it was over five feet in
diameter and cylindrical. The top had been excavated so as to
form a domed roof.

Other holes were connected by a horizontal passage through
which I could crawl from one to the other. One of these I saw
near Conch Sound, where the passage ran from the bottom of
one hole to the side of the other, which was much deeper.

Near by I saw two shallow holes that were connected by a
horizontal passage, so that they resembled a large tube bent up
at each end. It is not unusual to find openings in the ground,
barely large enough to admit an ordinary pail, and sometimes
much smaller. These are simply openings in the roof of a cave
or hole of unknown dimensions, and frequently in the bottom
is a quantity of fresh water that is used by the people.

The subject of banana-holes has been briefly discussed by Dr.
C. S. Dolley,' who accounts for their formation by " the action of
decaying vegetable matter, that undergoes fermentative changes
by the products of which the soft, calcareous rock is dissolved
and leaches away." There is no doubt that the rock is in many
places eroded in this manner, as the small, saucer-shaped depres-
sions so common on the surface, and each often containing
leaves and water, plainly testify. But I doubt if this agent alone
would cause the deep vertical cylindrical holes, or those in
which the sides recede into caves or the horizontal passages.
And if the holes were formed in the manner described by Dr.
Dolley, should we not find them in the low level land as well as
on the ridges ? But, as stated before, the holes are found in far
greater number on the ridges, and in places where the surface is
such as to indicate that formerly the erosion from the waves was

'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1889, p. 132.

14 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 13,

very great. If we could have a good view of tlie proper bottom
of a banana-hole, we might be able to account for their forma-
tion; but, unfortunately, the bottom is always filled with a deposit
of earth or blocks of coral rock, and generally covered with vege-
tation.

It is not improbable that the deep cylindrical ones were formed
in the same manner as pot-holes. And others might have ori-
ginated in the same way as the spouting-holes, where the waves
undermine the shore and afterward break an opening in the
rock above. Should some of the boiling-holes, described above,
become elevated and their bottoms filled up with fallen blocks
of coral rock and deposits of earth, they would form banana-
holes. The holes in the cracks at Fresh Creek can be easily ex-
plained, but if all banana-holes were formed in this manner we
should find them in a line with others, which I was told was the
case, but I was never able to satisfy myself that it was so. The
caves are often the result of the former action of the sea, and
some of them have probably been washed out by rain-water;
but in either case, should a portion of the roof fall in, it would
make a banana-hole if small, or, if large, an ocean-hole like the
one near Nicols Town. The horizontal passages are evidently
washed out by water, but whether by the sea or rain-water I do
not l^now, but I believe either might have accomplished it. It
is difficult to understand how underground channels could be
formed under water, yet tlie boiling-holes prove that such exist ;
but there is no means of determining whether they were formed
under the present circumstances or at some previous period
when the land might have been elevated.

I was told that holes were as common under the water as they
were on the land, but did not myself observe this to be the case ;
but then my opportunities for observation in this direction were
limited. I infer from the facts I have given that banana-holes
and caves pass gradually into each other, and that they have been
formed by the action of the sea-water and afterwards modified
by the action of rain-water, aided by the products of the decom-
posing vegetable material and in some cases by the falling-in of
the roofs of the caves.

Effects of Vegetation on the Surface.

One of the facts that I noticed shortly after my arrival in the
Bahamas was the occurrence of great numbers of blocks of coral
rock scattered irregularly over the ground, and I first thought
tiiat tliey were the result of the excessive erosion that I saw tak-
ing place around me. But on some of the cays — as on Goat
Cay, described above — where the erosion was most rapid, there

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 15

were no loose blocks, and if these had been formed by erosion
alone it was there that we should have found them most numer-
ous.

I had often noticed the gnarled and stunted appearance of
the bushes and trees that grew near the shore, and where there
was evidently a severe struggle between the sea on the one hand
and the plants on the other.

At Quarantine Station I was shown a small bush, RhacicalUs
rtipestris, and was told that it was over twenty-two years old, by
a man who said he could remember the plant as "long as he
could remember anything." I cut away the rock surrounding
the bush, and found that its roots proceeded downward a few
inches through the solid rock. At the surface the trunk ex-
panded so as to form a projecting mass that rested on the
rock. The bush was only about eighteen inches in height
and evidently stunted by lack of nourishment. I then pulled
up a number of shrubs in the vicinity, and found that their
roots ran under the hard crust that formed the surface of
the rock. Further observation showed that in many places
the crust had been lifted and broken by the growth of the
roots, and then trees were noticed with the base of their
trunks surrounded by slabs of rocks that leaned against them.
Finally, when the rock becomes eroded, the roots of trees pene-
trate the holes and crevices, and by their growth crack off large
fragments that subsequent erosion forms into boulders. And
these boulders are found most abundant where the trees are the
largest, and hence where the action of their roots is most vig-
orous. Hence we may infer that these blocks are formed by
erosion and the growth of the roots of the shrubs and trees.

While at Nassau I noticed on the shore in some places — as
near Dix Point — vertical masses of rock that ran in an irregu-
larly curving or straight line on the surface. The projections
were sometimes about one foot high and two to four inches in
width, and containing on their upper edge a number of holes,
about half an inch in diameter, that were often shallow and
sometimes mere pits, but quite regularly distributed in a single
line. These little ridges could sometimes be traced for a dis-
tance of fifteen or twenty feet, and had evidently been left stand-
ing while the surrounding rook had been eroded. For a long
time I was unable to explain their formation. Sometimes the
ridges intersected and formed small or large triangles, as the
case might be. When I visited the south side of New Provi-
dence, I saw growing in the water, in the calcareous mud that
there forms the bottom, the Black Mangrove or Salt Bush {Avi-
cetiJiia nitida)y and radiating from it, projecting about five or

16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oCT. 13,

six inches above the ground, were small vertical shoots about
three or four inches apart and looking very much like the teeth
of a very long wooden rake. These shoots, I afterward found,
come from the long, sucker-like roots of the Avicennia and also
of the Buttonwood {Conocarpus cj'ectus). Later, on the west
side of Andros, I found these plants growing near the water and
also higher up on the beach, which here was a very fine calcare-
ous deposit. This deposit had been slightly raised by the growth
of the shoots, and higher up on the shore, where in contact
with the shoots, it had hardened into rock. This, I believe, ex-
plains the ridges described above, for the roots are frequently a
foot below the surface, and the action of fresh water following
down the shoots, and probably, also, the action of the juices of
the plant, have slightly dissolved the calcareous material and then
cemented it into a rock harder than the surrounding deposit.
The latter, when erosion commences, wears away and leaves the
harder ridge standing. The manner in which the ridges are
formed, and the holes in the tops of them, all strengthen this
conclusion. The triangular spaces enclosed by the ridges are
almost identical in appearance with the triangular spaces marked
off by the sucker-like roots that cross each other in all directions.

Rhizomorphs.

While visiting the quarry at Nassau my attention was drawn
to some cylindrical masses of coral rock that apparently hung
root-like over the edges of the quarry and were about four feet
in length. They were, however, cemented to the wall. I broke
one off, and on examining it found that the particles of which it
was composed were arranged in a concentric manner about a
central axis. On the way back from the quarry I pulled up a
small shrub, and found its roots penetrating the rock, which
had been eroded so as to leave cylinders surrounding them.
Dr. Dolley ' has called attention to these cylindrical and tubular
forms, and has explained their formation by supposing that they
represent the " ramifications of a now exterminated flora," and
also that "the juices of the roots, acting on the sand imme-
diately surrounding them, formed a compact layer. Through
erosion and subsidence the vegetation was afterward extermi-
nated, the looser particles of drift rock worn away, and the sur-
face left covered by myriads of tubes of all sizes, formerly occu-
pied by plant roots and rootlets." Later, on Spruce Cay, near
Nassau, and at many other places, I found a number of these
cylindrical projections, some of which contained a small hole in

'Loc. cit., p. 131.

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 17

the centre, Avhicb in others was filled with calcareous material.
I believe Dr. DoUey's theory of the formation of these cylin-
drical and tubular projections is, in the main, the correct one;
for I collected specimens with the roots still in them, and the
concentric arrangement shown on cross section shows very
plainly that the solvent action of the water, following the path
of the root, had been from within outward. As these masses are
conspicuous and characteristic, I would suggest that they be
called rhizomorphs ; and this name would also cover the tubular
masses that have evidently been formed in the same manner,
and which I have found in the ferruginous clays of New Jer-
sey and elsewhere. The action of the water in the latter case
has been on the iron contained in the clay.

Dr. Dolley is inclined to think that the rhizomorphs were
formed while the sand was in a loose state; and while I do not
deny that this might be possible, I believe that all that I saw
had been formed by the roots penetrating the already hardened
rock; and I furthermore found no rhizomorphs being formed
by the plants growing in the loose sand.

Dr. Dolley also states ' that the "small islands exhibiting these
peculiar formations " (rhizomor))hs) "are indications, therefore,
of erosion and subsidence.'' I admit the erosion; but ap the
rhiz(miorplis are found twenty and thirty feet above the sea-level,
I think that subsidence has taken no part in their formation.

These rhizomorphs are not to be confounded with the cylindri-
cal masses described on Goat Cay, for the latter were vertical
and did not exhibit the concentric arrangement of the particlea
so plainly shown in the rhizomorphs, which are found at all
possible angles. And if we suppose the masses on Goat Cay to
be due to the same i)rocess that formed the rhizomorphs, we must
suppose that the roots that produced them grew vertically down-
ward, which is extremely improbable. It may be well to state
that a few rhizomorphs were found on Goat Cay, and the differ-
ence between them and the cylindrical masses was very marked.

It might be asked, if these rhizomorphs have been formed
in the manner described, why is it that we do not find them
everywhere on the islands ? And in answer to this objection it
may be said that roots of most of the trees spread out over the
ground or slightly under the crust, but do not penetrate the
rock; and that the roots of the smaller plants are those that
have formed the rhizomorphs, and that these latter show only
where tiiere is but little vegetation, and where the erosion is
active and not helped by tiie roots of trees breaking up the sur-
face into blocks as described above.

'Loc. cit., p. 132.

18 • TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 13,

Evidence of Subsidence and Elevation.

The facts bearing on the question of subsidence and elevation
have already been given, but it may be worth while to briefly
review them and give my inferences.

The caves and old beaches now above the sea plainly show
where the level of the water formerly was. The section at
Fresh Creek proves, as do the other cases of elevated corals, that
the island has been elevated. As the formation on top of the
corals at Fresii Creek is ^olian, it follows that it could have
been deposited only above water; and as the caves and old beaches
are at least thirty feet above the sea-level and in the ^olian
formation, they could not have been formed until the islands had
subsided. Hence we are justified in assuming that at some pre-
vious time in their history the islands were at about the same
level as now. Then followed a period of subsidence of at least
thirty feet, during which the caves and old shoi*e lines were
formed. After this subsidence the islands were elevated to
about their present position. It only remains to sum up the
facts that bear on the question of the most recent movement in
the Bahamas.

The fact that on the west coast of Andros, where the slope
seaward is so exceedingly slight, the soft, calcareous mud grows
gradually harder and harder as we go inland, indicates to my
mind that the island has been recently rising; for if it were sub-
siding or had recently subsided, we may suppose that time
enough would have elapsed since its elevation to allow the calca-
reous deposit to harden into rock, and then, as the subsidence
took place, the surface at the edge of the water would be hard
rock, which would finally probably extend under the water as
the latter encroached on the land. The depth, close to the
shore, of the fine calcareous deposit also points to elevation, for
in it I ran a pole nine feet. How much deeper it was I had no
means of determining, owing to the length of the pole. Now,
had subsidence been taking place, should we find this depth of
calcareous mud close to the shore ? It is perhaps possible, and
it might be claimed that the greater the subsidence the greater
would be the depth of the mud ; but by the time that nine feet
of sediment had been laid down it is reasonable to suppose that
the mud on the shore would have hardened, and then should we
not find the water washing against a rocky shore ?

As we approach tlie west side of Andros from the interior the
pines grow smaller and smaller, and the forest is often prolonged
into points that run out in the swash and are composed of
young and vigorous trees. There are also in the swash small

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 19

and slightly elevated pieces of land barely above the level of the
surrounding ground^, and on these are growing young pines.
These facts show that the pines are advancing as fast as the con-
ditions admit. Now, we may fairly suppose that within verff
recent geological times the atmospheric conditions were practi-
cally the same as now, and that the outward growth of the pines
is limited by the elevation of the land from the influence of the
salt water. Now, had the land once been as high as at present,
it is fair to suppose that the pines would have taken possession
of the places they now occupy ; and if subsidence was in pro-
gress, they would now be being driven back from their vantage
ground. And we may also suppose that before the change from
elevation to subsidence had taken place, time enough to allow
the pines to grow old would have elapsed ; and hence were
the island now sinking, or rather had it recently been sink-
ing, we should ex[)ect to find on the western shore the pine for-
est with an array of old and dying trees facing the sea, and it
would not be surprising if some dead pines were found standing
in the water. None of tliese appearances are to be found.

The mangroves, too, point to elevation, for I find recorded in
my note books instances of mangroves, far above high-water
mark, that were apparently dying, but none were seen in situa-
tions that indicated that the water was becoming too deep for
them, as would probably be the case if the land had been re-
cently sinking.

These facts have perhaps been treated with too much detail;
but when I had been only to Nassau, and had seen the active
erosion that was taking place, I was inclined to think that the
islands were sinking, and was afterwards forced by the facts
given above to alter my conclusion. That most of the cays are
being worn away and reduced in size is evident. The vegeta-
tion is being driven backward, as indicated by the old and
gnarled appearance of the bushes and by the rhizomorphs that
remain where the plants once grew. But on the west side of
Andros the water is so shallow for a long distance sea«vard that
there is practically no erosion of the land by the waves. A lit-
tle bank of coral sand and foraminifera raised slightly above
the level of the swash is the only evidence of the action of the
water.

Formation of the Cays North of New Providence.

The position, size, and shape of these larger cays have already
been given on page 5.

Before attempting to explain the manner in which I believe
they were formed, 1 will briefly describe the appearance of the

20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oCT. 13,

reef at Nicols Town, Andros, and also that at Rose Island, near
Nassau.

At Nicols Town the reef was about a quarter of a mile from
the shore, and the water varied from ten to eighteen feet in
depth. Tiie reef was almost entirely composed of the great
Madreporapalmarum, with some small })atclie.s of M. cervicornus.
Both of these corals were growing luxuriantly, and their tips
were close to tlie surface of the receding waves. Tiie reef at
Rose Island, however, contained very few specimens of M. pal-
marnm, but many of M. cervicormis, and also large heads of
what are popularly known as "brain corals," but which of the
genera so designated I am unable to state. The receding waves
left the top of the reef bare, and exposed the sea fans and alcyo-
noid corals that were growing on the top. Toward the shore the
reef sloped gradually downward into a bank of sand, or, in other
words, the sandy bottom sloped upward to the top of the reef,
which thus presented a very different appearance from the one
at Nicols Town, where the corals rose from the bottom. These
facts show, I think, that the Rose Island reef is an old one, while
the Nicols Town reef is in what we may call its prime. A study
of the chart of New Providence shows, running along its north-
ern shore, a number of reefs, some of which are marked nearly
dry at low water. Now, in order to convert these reefs into land
it is only necessary that they should be slightly elevated or that
sand should be deposited on top of them. And this, I believe,
is the way in which the cays known as Hog Island, Rose Island,
Salt Oay, and Quarantine Cay have been formed. In other words,
I believe they have been formed in the same manner as L. Agas-
siz explained the formation of the cays of southeastern Florida.
He argues, however, that as the cays nearest the land, and hence
those lirst formed, are no higher than those farther seaward, it
follows that during their formation tlie land was stationary.
Prof. Heilprin,' on the other hand, has i)roved that the Florida
Peninsula is, or has lately been, rising. I think I have shown
that the Bahamas, or at least tiie islands of New Providence and
Andros, have very recently been rising; and yet,'although I have
no measurements, I venture to state that Salt Cay, the most sea-
ward one, is as high if not higher than Hog Island, that lies in-
side of it.

To return to Florida. It would seem at first as if the conclu-
sions of Prof. Heilprin precluded the possibility of the cays be-
ing formed as suggested by Agassiz; for if we suppose a cay to
be formed while the land is rising, and then that another forms

' Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci., Vol. I.

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 21

to seaward, and this process to continue until three or four cays
were formed one outside of the other, it seems as if the first one
would be higher above the level of the sea than the last, and this
Agassiz ' states is not the case. When I first read Agassiz's
memoir I was much impressed with the strength of his argu-
ments. But Heilprin's in regard to elevation are conclusive;
and although he did not visit the lower part of the Peninsula,
it is probable that its movement is in the same direction as that
portion examined.

It will, however, be noticed that Agassiz lays no stress on the
effects of the erosion that takes place so rapidly on all islands of
coral formation.

I believe that the views of these two eminent observers can be
brought into harmony by considering the effects of erosion. Let
us suppose a cay has been formed of calcareous material thrown
up by the waves to a height of fifteen or twenty feet. Then,
while the cay to seaward was being formed, the erosion would
take place on the one already made, and whether its height
above the sea increased, remained constant, or decreased would
depend upon the relative effects of the elevation and erosion.
It is not improbable that these two forces might balance each
other; and if this were so, it is easy to show diagrammatically
that any number of cays could form, one after the other, to sea-
ward, and yet the first be no higher than the last above the
level of the sea. And this argument also applies to the cays
near Nassau. It is probable that the ocean would throw up
some of the cays higher than the others, and also that a slight
difference in height would not be observed by the unaided eye.

27ie Formation of the Balimiias.

Asstatedon page 4, the islands lie on the eastern and northern
edges of the Great and Little Bahama Banks. The only excep-
tions are Great Bahama Island, the Biminis, and some others
that are exceedingly small.

As I have visited only New Providence and Andros, I hesitate
to do more than suggest that the other islands of the banks have
been formed by the action of the waves and wind in the same
manner as the cays near Nassau.

A visit to the other islands of the srroup would be well repaid,
for some of them, as San Salvador, Rum Cay, and Inagua, have
apparently been formed in a different manner from those on the
Great Bank. And it is interesting to note that Dr. Bryant '' de-

1 "Report on Florida Reefs," Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. VII., No.
1, p. 36.
2Proc. Best. See. Nat. Hist., XL, p. 63.

22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 13,

scribes Inagua as a raised atoll. And Crooked Island and Ack-
lin together resemble in a remarkable manner the shape of the
Keeling Atoll.' Should these be proved portions of an elevated
atoll, it would be interesting, as they would be only exceeded in
size by the atolls of the Maldiva Archipelago, which are the
largest known." The islands of the Oaicos Bank also resemble
the form of an old atoll, and the bank is still larger than that on
which Crooked and Acklin Islands are situated.

In conclusion, it is interesting to note that Darwin and Prof.
Dana, although they never visited the Bahamas, have, from a
study of the charts, come to diametrically opposite conclusions
in regard to the evidence they present of elevation or subsidence.
Prof. Dana states'* that "the Bahamas show by their form,
and position that tliey cover a submerged land of large area,^'
and that " the long line of reefs and the Florida cays trending
away from the land of southern Florida are evidence that this
Florida region participated, though to a less extent than the Ba-
hamas. . . . Thus the size of the islands, as well as the exis-
tence of coral banks and also the blankness of the ocean beyond,
all appear to bear evidence to a great subsidence.''

Darwin, on the contrary, says :^ Proofs of elevation within re-
cent Tertiary periods abound over nearly the whole area of the
West Indies, and hence it is easy to understand " the origin of
the Great Bahama Banks, which are bordered on their southern
and western edges ^ by singularly-shaped islands formed of sand,
shells, and coral rock, some of them about 100 feet in height, is
easily explained by the elevation of banks fringed on their wind-
ward side by reefs.''

I think the facts I have given justify my conclusion in regard
to the recent elevation of Andros and New Providence. It is
probable that the elevation extended over the rest of the Baha-
mas, as caves exist on the other islands. What the Bahamas
are doing to-day, of course, we cannot tell; but until we have
proof to the contrary, we may assume that they are rising.

This paper was illustrated by a large number of interesting
specimens, and many fine lantern slides from photographs made
by the author.

1 Darwin, " Coral Reefs," 3d ed., PI. I., Fig. 10,
- Dana, " Corals and Coral Islands," p. 190.
3 " Corals and Coral Islands," p. 368.
^ " Coral Reefs," 3d ed., p. 268.

''I have quoted this as given by Darwin. It is evidently a slip of the
pen, as the islands are on the eastern and northern edges of the banks

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 23

After the reading of the paper, Dr. Newberry made some
pertinent remarks on the geology of the group, and spoke of the
disputes in progress as to the rise or subsidence of the islands.
Dr. Brixton asked if the soil contained much oxide of iron.
In reiolv, Dr. Northrop stated that he had been unable to make
any exact analyses, from lack of time, but that on treating the
various specimens of soil with dilute hydrochloric acid a consid-
erable variation in them was shown. Some specimens dissolved
completely, others left a large residue; these residues, tested be-
fore the blow-pipe, showed varying amounts of iron. Dr. New-
berry explained that the limestone rocks were disintegrated by
waters charged with carbonic acid; the lime being dissolved out
left the silica, and oxide of iron, and alumina; these latter sub-
stances formed the nucleus of a soil. If the original rock con-
tained much oxide of iron, we would be prepared to find it in
the resulting soil. Dr. Bolton remarked that some of the
specimens exhibited were similar to the rhizomorphs occurring
on the Island of Niihau, H. I.

The following names were proposed for Eesident Member-
ship:

Frederick Starr, Ph.D.,
by Dr. Bolton.

Mrs. Theodore Sutro,
Dr. Jeannette B. Greene,
by Dr. Newberry.

October 20th, 1890.

Stated Meeting.

The President, Dr. Newberry, in the chair.

About fifteen persons present.

Minutes of October 13tli were read and approved.

The following nominations were made for Resident Member-
ship:

34 transactions of thb [oct. 20,

Charles F. Prentice,
by Wm. L. Elseffer.

Dr. Frank D. Skeel,
by Dr. Bashford Dean.
President Newberry nominated as Fellow of the Academy:

Dr. Bashford Dean.
Dr. H. T. Vulte read a few brief notes on

the analysis of grains and cereals.

(Abstract.)

The paper is a brief review of some of the well-known methods,
but makes special reference to the Kjeldahl method foralbumen-
oids and the Von Asboth process for starch. An outline of
both is here given.

Kjeldahl Method.

Consists of two operations: —

1st. The digestion or conversion of albumenoid bodies into
compounds of ammonia by means of concentrated sulphuric
acid, alone or with other suitable oxidizing agents.

2d. The decomposition of the ammonium sulphate by caustic
alkali, distillation, and condensation of the ammonia in standard
acid.

Digestion. — From 0.8 to 1.5 gms. of the substance are intro-
duced into a long-necked, pear-sliaped flask of hard glass, from
10 to 20 c.c. of concentrated C. P. sulphuric acid, free from ni-
trogen, and about 0.5 gm. of metallic mercury added. The flask
and contents are then placed on a ring stand and slowly heated
until violent action has ceased. The heat is then increased, and
continued until the solution is of a pale-yellow color; this usu-
ally takes from one-half to three-quarters of an hour. The
heat is then removed, and finely pulverized potassium perman-
ganate is cautiously added in small portions until the liquid as-
sumes a green tinge (if pink, water is present, and reheating for
some time is necessary). Heat is now applied for a few minutes,
when the liquid will clear. This indicates the completion of
the digestion; the heat is removed and the flask allowed to cool.

Distillatioti. — The contents of the digestion flask are then
rinsed with about 200 c.c. of cold water into an Erlenmeyer flask

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 25

of about 700 c.c. capacity containing some spirals of platinum
wire; 25 c.c. of potassium sulphide solution (containing 40gms.
per litre) are then added. The Erlenmeyer flask is fitted with a
Wiirtz tube, and this in turn connects with a common block-tin
condenser. To the drip end of the condenser is attached a tube
bearing a bulb. The other end of this bulb tube dips under the
surface of the liquid in the receiving flask. This flask should
contain the standard acid in amount from 85 to 50 c.c, as the
case demands. I prefer to use normal hydrochloric acid, but*|
sulphuric acid may be used.

Just before starting the distillation, from 50 to 100 c.c. of
caustic soda (27 per cent) are cautiously run into the distilling
flask and mixed with the contents, avoiding violent agitation.
A piece of red litmus paper is now dropped in the flask, which
is immediately stoppered. The litmus paper serves to show
whether enough alkali has been added; if not, measure out
10 c.c. more, uncork the flask, and introduce as before. Con-
tinue these additions until the contents are alkaline; but avoid
a large excess. When ready, heat up slowly to boiling, and keep
up the distillation until at least 150 c.c. of distillate have passed
over. Remove the receiving flask, and determine the acidity of
the contents with j- ammonia or -^ potassium hydrate, using
methyl orange as indicator.

A blank test should be made with the reagents, and under
the same conditions as the original. Time of operation, two to
two and one-half hours.

Calculation of Results. — The number of cubic centimetres
of acid neutralized by the distillate, calculated to nitrogen and
multiplied by 6.25, is equivalent to the albumenoids, i.e., glu-
ten, etc.

The determination of starch by tlie ordinary methods hitherto
in vogue is uncertain and tedious. I refer to inversion followed by
use of Fehling solution and O'Sullivan's diastase method. The
first is unreliable, there being no certain method of ascertaining
when all the starch has been converted into glucose; or the pro-
cess may go too far, decomposing the starch to hnmic acid, etc.;
result, low figures in both cases.

The second is a more reliable method, but there is great difii-
culty in preparing the diastase, which does not keep. That pur-
chased from dealers cannot be used.

Von Ashoth Process.

This depends on the fact that starch unites with barium oxide
to form a compound containing 19 per cent of barium oxide.

26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oCT. 20,

This compound is insoluble in excess of barium hydrate, or in
proof spirit.

The reagents used are as follows:

A saturated solution of barium hydrate, free from carbonate,
approximately three-tenths normal.

A fg- solution of hydrochloric acid; a y^^- solution of hydro-
chloric acid.

Proof spirit.

Phenol-phthalein, alcoholic solution.

PROCESS.

Take about 1.5 to 3.0 gms. of the dried and coarsely ground
grain or flour (which should be previously thoroughly freed from
fats in a Soxhlet or other extraction apparatus), place it in a
small mortar, and add not more than 25 c.c. of cold water (for
hard grains, as corn, etc., use hot water), rub up to a thin
paste, and transfer the liquid to a 250 c.c, flask; continue the
operation until all is so transferred, using not more than 100 c.c.
of water. Now heat the flask over a water bath, with occasional
agitation, until the starch is completely gelatinized, remove
from the heat, cool, and run in 50 c.c. of the baryta solution;
then stopper the flask and shake Avell, remove the stopper, and
All up to the mark with proof spirit; again stopper the flask and
shake well for two minutes, and set aside to allow the baryta
starch to settle. Now determine the value of 10 c.c. of the ba-
ryta solution in terms of -^ hydrochloric acid. When the ba-
ryta starch has settled, remove the stopper and draw off 50 c.c.
of the clear supernatant liquid, and determine the excess of
baryta in it with y^ hydrochloric acid, finishing with the -^-^
acid, and using phenol-phthalein as an indicator. Two portions
of the liquid should be so tested and the results averaged. The
amount of barium hydrate originally taken (50 c.c), less five
times the excess present in 50 c.c. of supernatant liquid, is
multiplied by 4.23+ and gives the weight of starch, in the
sample.

Barium hydrate solution should be preserved from contact with
carbonic acid with jealous care, hence it is best to use a reservoir
and self-filling burette, both protected by soda-lime tubes; thus
guarded, a solution will maintain its efficiency for many months,
but it is well in all cases to test the barium solution for each de-
termination. Time of operation, exclusive of extraction of fat,
one to one and one-half hours.

The following table will show how the factors 4.23 and 0.0324
are derived:

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY Of SCIENCES. 27

Molecular wt.

Baryta starch (C6H,o05)4BaO 801

Starch (CsHioO,) X 648

Barium oxide 153

4(C6H,o06) + BaO = BaO(CeH,o05)4
Hence

BaO (CaH,o05)4
153 : 648 : : 1 : X = 4.23 +

Therefore 1 part of barium oxide is equivalent to 4.23+ parts
of starch.

Again, the starch figure may be obtained by multiplying
the difference of cubic centimetres of y^ HCl used in neu-
tralizing the check and actual analyses by 0.0324, a factor
obtained thus: 1 c.c. of j^ HCl contains 0. 00;^ 65 gm. HCl and
is equivalent to 1 c.c. of ^^ barium hydrate solution con-
taining 0.00765 gm. BaO.

2HC1 + BaO = BaCl. + H^O
Hence

4.23 X 0.00765 = 0.0324

the value of 1 c.c. of ^ HCl in starch.

To obtain the amount of dry starch the following calcula-
tion is necessary:

Let V = quantity of water in the original grain.
" y = " " " in the extracted grain.

" z = " " fat.

'* a = " " starch found in the extracted grain,

(a) (100 — y) :a:: 100 :x

(b) 100 :x :: (100 — v + z) : x'

x' = the amount of starch in the original sample.
Note, — Dextrin is counted as starch in this process.

Dr. H. C. Bolton exhibited a few specimens of the handi-
work of the natives of the Hawaiian Islands. These included
specimens of Kapa, a kind of light cloth made of the paper
mulberry and dyed of several hues ; two kinds of Leis, or gar-
lands of small shells; the model of a native canoe with out-
rigger, and a fan made of cocoanut palm. Also a fancy bag
made of seeds of the papaya. Also, from Samoa, another fan
■and a mat made oi 'pandanus fibre.

He spoke of the indolence of the natives, who expect a high
price for any work of this character.

28 TKANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 27,.

October 27tli, 1890.

Stated Meeting.

The President, Dk, Newberry, in the chair.

About seventy -five persons present.

Minutes of October 20th were read and approved.

Dr. Newberry exhibited a fine specimen of turquoise from
Mineral Park, Arizona.

The following paper was read :

RESEARCHES ON MUSICAL SAND IN THE HAWAIIAN" ISLANDS

AND IN CALIFORNIA.

BY DR. H. CARRINGTON BOLTON.

(Abstract.)
I. Kauai and Niihau.

About a year ago I presented to the Academy some account
of my study of sonorous sand in the Peninsula of Sinai. That
communication was in continuation of researches begun jointly
with Dr. Alexis A. Julien in 1882, the results of which liave
been laid before you on several occasions (May 14th, 1883;
March 10th. 1884; April 28th, 1884; October lotli, 1888; May
13th, 1889; October 21st, 1889). We have shown that the phe-
nomenon of musical sand has been generally neglected by scien-
tists, although it is of a marked character, and that the sand is
widely distributed in nature, occurring on fresh-water lakes,
on sea-beaches, and in arid regions.

In the spring of this year I visited the so-called " Barking
Sands" of the Hawaiian Islands, already mentioned in the
works of several travellers (Bates, Frink, Bird, Nordhoff, and
others). As a natural curiosity the place has a world-wide
fame, but the printed accounts are rather meagre in detail, and
show their authors to have been unacquainted with similar phe-
nomena elsewhere.

On the southwest coast of Kauai, in the district of Mana^
sand-dunes attaining a height of over 100 feet extend for a mile
or more nearly parallel to the sea, and covering hundreds of
acres with the water-worn and wind-blown fragments of shells
and coral. The dunes are terminated on the west by bold cliffs
{Pali) whose base is washed by the sea; at the east end the
range terminates in a dune more symmetrical in shajie than the

1890. J NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 29

majority, having on the hmd side the appearance of a broadened
truncated cone. The sands on the top and on the hind ward
slope of this dune (being about 100 yards from the sea) possess
remarkable acoustic properties, likened to the bark of a dog.
The dune has a maximum height of 108 feet, but the slope of
sonorous sand is only 60 feet above the level field on which it is
encroaching. At its steepest part, the angle being quite uni-
formly 31°, the sand has a notable mobility when perfectly dry,
and on disturbing its equilibrium it rolls in wavelets down the
incline, emitting at the same time a deep bass note of a tremu-
lous character. My companion thought the sound resembled
the hum of a buzz-saw in a planing mill. A vibration is some-
times perceived in the hands or feet of the person moving the
sand. The magnitude of the sound is dependent on the quan-
tity of sand moved, and probably to a certain extent upon the
temperature. The drier the sand the greater the amount pos-
sessing mobility and the louder the sound. At the time of my
visit the sand was dry to the depth of four or five inclies ; its
tempei'ature three inches beneath the surface was 87° Fahren-
heit, that of the air being 83° in the shade (4:30 p.m.).

When a large mass of sand was moved downward I heard the
sound at a distance of 105 feet from the base, a light wind blow-
ing at right angles to the direction. On one occasion horses
standing close to the base were disturbed by the rumbling sound.
When the sand is clapped between the hands a slight, hoot-like
sound is heard ; but a louder sound is produced by confining it
in a bag, dividing the contents into two parts, and bringing
them together violently. This I had found to be the best way
of testing sea-shore sand as to its sonorousness. The sand on
the top of the dune is wind-furrowed and generally coarser than
that of the slope of 31°, but this also yielded a sound of unmis-
takable character when so tested. A bagful of sand will pre-
serve its power for some time, especially if not too frequently
manipulated. A creeping vine with a blue or purple blossom
{kolokolo) thrives on these dunes and interrupts the sounding
slope. I found the main slope 120 feet long at its base, but the
places not covered by this vine gave sounds at intervals 160
paces westward. At 94 paces further the sand was non-sonorous.

The native Hawaiians call this place Nohili, a word of no
specific meaning, and attribute the sound caused by the sand to
the spirits of the dead, uliane, who grumble at being disturbed;
sand-dunes being commonly used for burial places, especially
in early times, as bleached skeletons and well-preserved skulls
at several places abundantly show.

Sand of similar properties is reported to occur at Haula,

30 TRANSACTIONS OF THK [OCT. 27,

about three miles east of Koloa, Kauai; this I did not visit, but,
prompted by information communicated by Hon. Vladimar
Knudsen, of Waiawa, I crossed the channel to the little-visited
island of Niihau. On the western coast of this islet, at a place
called Kaluakahua, sonorous sand occurs on the land side of a
dune about 100 feet high, and at several points about 600 to 800
feet along the coast. On the chief slope, 36 feet high, the sand
has the same mobility, lies at the same angle, and gives when
disturbed the same note as the sand of Kauai, but less strong,
the slope being so much lower. This locality has been known
to the residents of the island for many years, but has never been
before announced in print. This range of dunes, driven before
the high winds, is advancing southward, and has already cov-
ered the road formerly skirting the coast.

The observations made at these places are of especial interest
because they confirm views already advanced by Dr. Julieu and
myself with regard to the identity of the phenomena on, sea-
beaches and on hillsides in arid regions (Jebel Nagous, Rig-i-
Rawan, etc.). The sand of the Hawaiian Islands possesses the
acoustic properties of both classes of places ; it 'gives out the
same note as that of Jebel Nagous when rolling down the slope,
and it yields a peculiar hoot-like sound when struck together in
a bag, like the sands of Eigg, Manchester, Mass., and other sea-
beaches — a property that the sand of Jebel Nagous fails to pos-
sess. These Hawaiian sands also show how completely inde-
pendent of material is the acoustic quality, for they are wholly
carbonate of lime, whereas sonorous sands of all other localities
known to us (now over one hundred in number) are silicious,
being either pure silex or a mixture of the same with silicates,
as feldspar.

In 1875 Dr. James Blake, of San Francisco, examined micro
scopically a specimen of the Kauai sand sent him by Mr. Frink,
and ascribed its acoustic qualities to the cellular cliaracter of the
grains. This condition, however. Dr. Julien and I find to be
exceptional, since most sonorous sand is quartzose, and we believe
the gaseous-film theory, already announced to the Academy, ap-
plies equally to sonorous sand of diverse form, composition, and
origin.

A specimen carried away in a bag, and another shipped over
land in a keg, have both preserved their acoustic qualities up to
date.

[The speaker exhibited specimens, and obtained a low hoot
like sound by clapping together sand confined in a bag. The
subject was also illustrated by numerous original photograj^hs
(projected on a screen) of the Nohili, and of scenery on the
island of Kauai.]

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 31

II. California.

In previous communications we have enumerated over 70
localities of musical sand in the United States. With few ex-
ceptions, all of these were on the Atlantic coast, our efforts to
secure by correspondence information as to the Pacific coast
having been at that time rather unsatisfactory.

During the earlier part of this summer I examined in person
the sea-coast of California at several points, and with the follow-
ing results. Beginning at the southern extremity of the State,
I first visited

1. Coronado Beach, San Diego. At this agreeable spot so-
norous sand occurs in abundance, though of inferior quality. I
first noticed it alongside of Prof. Henry A. Ward's Museum of
Natural History, near the Hotel del Coronado, and traced it at
intervals for more than 1,500 feet west and the same distance
east of this place ; as the beach appears to be uniform in charac-
ter, it probably occurs throughout the entire length, about ten
miles. The n)usical sand occupies areas of various sizes in a
belt six to twenty feet wide above the ordinary high-tide line ;
a less sonorous variety, emitting a shriller note, also occurs be-
low the high-tide line on the surface only. Under the foot the
sand is distinctly sonorous, and a tingling sensation is perceived
in the toes when thrust into it forcibly; but these phenomena
were less marked at the time of my visit than they are at Eigg,
Mancliester, Mass., Eockaway, N. Y., and other places. In a
bag a loud soiind is obtained. There are no dunes in the imme-
diate vicinity. The areas of loudest intensity evidently change
their position from clay to day, or season to season ; a certain area
giving notable results one afternoon became moistened by an
unusually high tide during the night and was thus deprived of
its acoustic properties.

2. Santa Barbara. Very weak, superficial sonorous sand was
detected on the bathing beach near the long pier. The locality
is unfavorable, owing to abundance of alg£e and narrowness of
the sand -belt.

3. Redondo Beach, near Los Angeles. No sonorous sand was
detected at the time of my visit (July 2d).

4. Monterey. Affirmative results at two places. On the
bathing beach near the much-frequented Hotel del Monte is a
tract of loose sand highly sonorous, equal, apparently, in power ta
that of Manchester, etc. ; also at Moss Beach on the so-called
seventeen-mile drive. The sand here is unusually white and
transparent, and is fairly sonorous on the surface.

5. Pescadero. Sonorous sand has been reported by several

32 TKANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 27,

persons to occur near the pebble beach of Pescadero, and parti-
cuhirs were communicated tons in 1885 by Mr. J. W. Eedvvay,
so I did not personally examine this region.

6. San Francisco. Extensive sand-dunes form a conspicuous
feature in the ocean suburbs of San Francisco. Powerful winds
from the broad Pacific drive the sand city-ward and formerly
threatened to submerge a shifting real estate — a region of "sand-
lots/' world-notorious through the pseudo-oratory of a mischiev-
ous demagogue.

Recently scientific arboriculture has reclaimed a large tract
for the Golden Grate Park. Extensive dunes still remain, some
of them measuring 50 to 60 feet on tlieir steepest incline ; on
the lee side the sand lies at the angle of rest, which here is 31°,
the same as in Egypt, Bermuda, and the Hawaiian Islands. In
the dry season the sand is quite mobile, but, notwithstanding
these favorable conditions, it is utterly devoid of sonorous prop-
erties, owing to its shaly and siltose constitution. The beach
sand south of the Cliif House is also non-soAorous for the same
reason.

7. Laguna Beach. This beach lies on the ocean about five
miles north of Grolden Grate, and was reached via Sancelito. The
sand here, too, is shaly and wholly non-sonorous. Reporting the
occurrence of non-musical sand maybe uninteresting, but is not
altogether superfluous, for negatives are of importance in estab-
lishing affirmatives.

8. Mexico. Mr. W. Waddell, now in Brazil, but a resident of
Mexico for fifteen years, has furnished me with data of a sonorous
sand-hill in the Peninsula of Lower California. A gentleman of
accurate thought and a close observer of nature, he responded
to my pertinacious questioning in so satisfactory a manner as to
leave no doubt concerning the nature of the phenomenon and
the character of the locality.

In the year 1885, just before the close of the dry season, Mr.
Waddell was with a party of Mexicans on a schooner fitted out
for the capture of turtles. They coasted along the Pacific shore
of Lower California and made landings at many points. About
€0 miles north of Cape San Lucas, the extreme southern end of
the Peninsula, the party landed, and one of them climbed to the
top of a dune to get a view of the neighborhood — in short, to
prospect for turtles — and observed a sound issuing from the dry
loose sand disturbed by his act. Mr. Waddell, standing near, also
heard the sound, and, having previously read of the Mountain of
the Bell, at once recognized the phenomenon. This dune is
about 70 feet high (memory-measure), and shaped like the half
of a lens ; its sides are covered in part with plants common to

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEilT OF SCIENCES. 33

the region ; it forms one of a range parallel to the coast, and the
sonorous slope faces the sea. The sand consists of ordinary
quartz intermingled with a few broken shells. The sound pro-
duced by the sliding sand Mr. Waddell likened to that of bells,
or rather to that made by rubbing the moistened finger on the
edge of a glass bowl ; not having a musical ear, he was unable
to recall the pitch.

The phenomenon was known to some of the Mexicans in the
party, wiio narrated the following legend : Many centuries ago
there wasa flourishing monastery at this place, but, owing to the
wickedness of the monks, it was overwhelmed by drifting sand.
The monastery bells, however, were not involved in the fall of
the monks, having been blessed with due ceremony by high
ecclesiastics, hence the sound of these holy bells is still heard
at matins and vespers. The tradition resembles that of Jebel
Nagous, Arabia, so far as the monastery bells are concerned,
but is ingenious in accounting for both the underground state
of the priestly establishment and the survival of the music-yield-
ing bells.

There are no villages in the vicinity of this sand-hill, and the
ranches in the arid and desolate Peninsula are widely scattered ;
there is no business for commercial men, no attraction for tour-
ists, and the region is rarely visited by scientific travellers.

III. Additional Localities — Theories.

Several localities of peculiar interest have been reported to
Dr. Julien and myself, which I desire to place on record,
especially as by so doing public thanks can be given to infor-
mants. While sonorous sand has been shown to occur on the
shores of fresh-water lakes, on sea-beaches, and in arid regions
far removed from the sea, we have had no proof until recently
of its occurrence on rivers. Mr. William De M, Hooper, of In-
dianapolis, reports observing musical sand on the east bank of
the river Wisconsin, about two and one-half miles above Kil-
bourn City, Wis. It lies in several banks near the mouth of a
small gulch leading into the river. The scenery of the so-called
Dells of the Wisconsin is very picturesque and attracts many
visitors. It was in company with Prof. Fifield, of New Haven,
and on July 13th, 1886, that this locality was noted. The river
was low at the time, and the dry sand loudly sonorous.

Similar phenomena were observed on a shallow spot in the
Mississippi Kiver, opposite Carondelet, by Mrs. Stoltz and her
brother, of Waimea, in September, 1875. Being familiar with
the Barking Sands of Kauai, only ten miles from her home, the
lady collected samples from the river and exhibited them to

34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 27,

many persons. Mrs. Holmes, wife of the State Geologist of
North Carolina, has observed musical sand on the banks of Cape
Fear Kiver, a few miles above Wilmington, N. C. Mr. A. Sid-
ney Olliff, writing to Nature, reports sonorous sand at Botany
Bay, New South Wales, not far from the spot where Capt. Cook
first landed. Prof. Liversidge, of the University of Sydney, has
kindly sent us a specimen of sonorous sand from Brown's Eiver
Bay, Tasmania. Mr. L. H. Jacoby, a Fellow of this Academy,
brought us a specimen from Cape Ledo, West Africa. Lieut. -
Commander Frederick A. Miller, U. S. N., had previously
reported its occurrence on the landing beach at Liberia, West
Africa. Mr. Henry C. Hyndman, in a recent letter to Na-
ture, calls attention to a mention of sonorous sand by Andrew
A. Anderson in his work, "'Twenty-five Years in an African
Wagon " (1887) ; the locality therein named is on the west side
of the Langberg mountain, in West Griqualand, on dunes 500 to
600 feet in height.

These notes confirm our views, published in 1884, that musical
sand is really abundant throughout the world, and has only
lacked a biographer to bring it before the public.

In a paper read before the Bournemouth Society of Natural
Science by Mr. Cecil Carus-Wilson, in 1888, the author, after
liberal quotations from abstracts of our communications to the
Academy, announces as his theory that the musical notes result
from the "rubbing together of millions of clean sand-grains
very uniform in size." This he reaffirms in a recent letter to
Nature (October 9th, 1890). Dr. Julien and I regard this the-
ory as insufficient to explain musical sand, but well adapted to
explain squeaking sand. Two distinct classes of sounds are pro-
duced by disturbing sand, both undoubtedly due to vibrations.
The more common sound is caused by attrition of the particles,
and has a well-known harsh character by no means musical ; it
is sometimes heard when wagon-wheels crush through sand, and
in very rare cases this becomes a loud squeak. The second sound
is caused, we believe, by oscillations of the particles themselves,
protected from actual contact by elastic air-cushions, and this is
decidedly musical in tone.

Musical sand yields notes by friction only when dry ; squeak-
ing sand yields a harsh, shrill sound (reminding one of the cry
of a guinea fowl), best when moist. This latter variety is very
rare ; we have collected, by correspondence and in person, more
than 600 samples of sand from around the world, and musical
sand seems to be comparatively common ; but only two localities
of squeaking sand are known to us, both in so-called boiling
springs — one in Maine and the other in Kansas. A very small

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 35

quantity of squeaking sand pressed between the thumb and fore-
finger produces, when wet, a peculiar, shrill squeak — a pheno-
menon which we think well explained by the attrition theory.
The magnificent acoustic display which I have witnessed in the
Desert of Sinai, and the somewhat less striking phenomenon at
Kauai, are, however, manifestly due to greater freedom of oscil-
latory motion than is possible if the particles merely scrape
against each other.

Mr. Carus-Wilson announces a second edition of his paper on
musical sand. Dr. Julien and I await it with peculiar interest,
and shall be very much obliged to him for giving a large circu-
lation to the results we have obtained by extended travel and
years of study, though we would prefer to present the results to
the scientific public in our own way.

[Specimens Exhibited. — Musical sand from Mana, Kauai, and
from Kaluakahua, Niihau. Also, for comparison, from Jebel
Nagous, Arabia. Musical sand from Masconomo Beach, Mass.,
that was collected and bottled July 9th, 1884. This, when
tested in a bag, gave the characteristic sounds, easily heard by
the entire audience. Also two bags from Rockaway, L. I., col-
lected in 1885 and kept free from dust in a tin box. These still
preserve their musical power. The large bag of sand from Kau-
ai gave a much deeper musical note than the smaller bags from
Massachusetts and New York. Also very coarse black lava
sand from Punaluu, Hawaii ; ditto (finer) from Hilo, Hawaii ;
olivine sand from Kaumuhonu, Niihau ; volcanic ash from be-
low surface in Honolulu ; squeaking sand from Maine ; and
following rocks : amygdaloid from the Pali, Honolulu ; the
same from Haleakala, Maui ; scoriaceous and massive lava from
the same ; oo-vesicular lava from Mauna Loa, Hawaii ; lava col-
lected only twenty-four hours after flowing from Dana Lake,
crater of Kilauea, Hawaii.]

At the close of the paper the subject was discussed by De.
Julien and Prof. D. S. Martin.

November 3d, 1890.
Regular Business Meeting.
The President, Dr. Newberry, in the chair.
About twenty-five persons present.
The minutes of October 27th were read and approved.

\

36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [nOV. 3,

The following recommendations of the Council (October
30th) were read, and the persons mentioned duly elected :

1. The acceptance of tlie resignation of Judge R. L. Larre-
MORE, who withdraws from the Academy on account of failing
health.

2. The election of Dr. Bashford Dean as Fellow.

3. The election of the following Resident Members :

Frederick Starr, Ph.D.,
Mrs. Matilda Sutro,
Dr. Jeannette B. Green,
Charles F. Prentice,
Dr. Frank D. Skeel.

4. The election as Corresponding Member of Prof. W. D.
Alexander, of Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.

5. The payment of sundry bills amounting to i=55.82.

A letter was read from the New York Camera Club, inviting
the Fellows and Members of the Academy to an exhibition of
photo-mechanical processes at the Club Rooms on Fifth Avenue.
The Recording Secretary was directed to accept the invitation and
convey the thanks of the Academy to the Camera Club for their
kind invitation.

Dr. J. S. Newberry then read the paper announced for the
evening, entitled

ON the geological age and relations of the POTOMAC
group of VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND.

This paper was of great value, but on account of the sud-
den and severe illness of Dr. Newberry no abstract can be given
in the current number.

At the close of the paper Dr. Hubbard asked whether this
formation underlies the city of Richmond. At Dutch Gap, near
the city, the Potomac River is very rapid and makes a bend of
six or seven miles. Near this place an artesian well was sunk
some three or four hundred feet into shell marl, and no rock was
encountered or water found.

Dr. Bolton announced that the second annual meeting of

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 37

the American Folk-lore Society would be held at Columbia
College on Friday and Saturday, November 28fch and 29fch, and
suggested that the Academy hold a joint meeting with the Folk-
lore Society on Friday evening, November 28th. Adopted.

The following Committee on Eevision of the By-Laws was an-
nounced at this meeting :

H. Carrington Bolton,
N. L. Britton,
Silas B. Brownell,
C. F. Cox,
J. S. Newberry.

November 10th, 1890.

Stated Meeting.

The President, Dr. Newberry, in the chair.

About fifteen persons present.

The minutes of November 3d were read and approved.

Dr. Britton made some interesting remarks on some Raritan
clays which are slightly ferruginous, possibly not avaihible for
high-grade refractory material. The bed is thirty-five feet
thick, whitish in color, and contains no fossils.

Dr. Alexis A. Julien" read the paper announced for the
evening, entitled

on the microbe of phosphorescent wood.

(Abstract.)

The phosphorescence of wood has been often supposed to be
connected with the green coloring produced by certain fungi,
especially Peziza JungermannicB and P. cerugi)iosa. On an ex-
amination of a large number of samples of such green decayed
wood, collected in the Adirondack Mountains in 1889, not a
single specimen was found to be phosphorescent ; and this fact
serves in confirmation of the similar conclusion of Ludwig, Zukal,
and others. However, I have noticed, in some cases, that the cells

38 TKANSACTIONS OF THE [nOV. 10^

may contain large numbers of micrococci, and that these may be
actually colored green — by a natural process of staining, appa-
rently unique in nature — by the green coloring matter diffused
from the fungus through the woody tissue.

On the other hand, specimens of brightly phosphorescent de-
cayed wood, recently obtained in the Adirondacks, were found
to be uniformly uncolored. The cells were turgid with liquid,
apj^arently in unusual degree, and contained the mycelium of a
hymeno-mycetous fungus (as yet not identified), whose hymeuia
were scattered over the exterior surface of the decayed tree.
The phosphorescent agency, however, was found in vast num-
bers of a microbe of micrococcous form, mostly spherical, of
wide variation in size, from 0.2 to 3.0 microns or more in diame-
ter. These were scattered, or gathered in a variety of groups,
diijlococci, chains, bunches, etc., and even found sprouting out
into rods, some of which passed into short articulated hyphae,
like those constituting the mycelium above referred to. The
source of these micrococci was shown in larger oval sacs, 9 by 7
microns in length and breadth, apparently derived from the
mycelial threads, some being found still filled with the micro-
cocci of very small size.

On squeezing the liquid out of the cells of the wood upon thin
glass covers, the latter were rendered phosphorescent. The or-
ganism refused to grow upon the ordinary culture media, though
the fragments of phosphorescent wood could be kept in full
yigor and brightness for two weeks in a moist chamber. The
film of micrococci upon the dried thin covers was readily stained
by campechian (Loffler's solution).

The general literature on the phosphorescence of fungi and of
wood was discussed, from the papers of Dr. Eobert Boyle in the
year 1667, down to the more recent investigations of Ludwig,
Fischer, Arcangeli, Patouillard, etc.

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIEN-CES. 39

November 17tb, 1890.

Stated Meeting.

The President, Dr. Newberry, in the chair.

About ten persons present.

The minutes of November 10th were read and approved.

Dr. Bolton nominated as Kesident Member

Sydney A. Smith, A.B.

Dr. Frederick Staur read the paper announced for the
evening, entitled

SOME WINNEBAGO ARTS.

(Abstract.)

It is well known that a tribe may have peculiarities in speech,
in manners, in arts, that distinguish it at once from its neigh-
bors. The Haida carves slate as no other tribe does. The
elegant blankets of mountain sheep wool from Chilcat are char-
acteristic. The Hebrews tested the enemy with the word shib-
holeth, and found that he could only say sihholeth. A twist of
the tongue in i)ronouncing a word is a small matter, but, small
as it is, it may be perpetuated for ages.

Such a perpetuation of a tribal peculiarity has been aptly
called an ethnic survival. Some of the advanced linguists of
the present day are beginning to query whether the group
of modern languages of the Aryan family are not examples
of such ethnic survival; whether the differences between
French and Italian and Spanish, Latin, Greek, and Slavonic,
are not due to the difficulty various ancient tribes found
in learning to speak tiie same new and foreign language.
To draw an example of ethnic survival from another field
of science, consider the art of the French cave-men. The
archaeologist finds in the caverns bones of various mammals,
teeth of cave-bear, and antlers of reindeer carved with animal
figures. The art is good for a barbarous people, but it is cer-
tainly barbarian art. The range of designs is quite great: horses,
bears, mammoths, reindeer are among the figures. The people
who did this work were an artistic people. To carve and repre-
sent animal forms was almost a mania with them. An ethnic
impulse seems to have driven them on to such work, just as a^
similar impulse drives the Haida slate carver to-day; just as a

40 " TRANSACTIONS OF THE [nOV. 17,

similar impulse has driven the Bushman to cover the walls of
his caves in South Africa with jnctnres whose boldness and
fidelity are the amazement of all who see them.

We have, then, in the French cave-dwellers a people who had
a well-defined art, and who, as art workers, were isolated and
unlike all neighbors. An eminent English scientist believes that
neither they nor their art are gone. There is a people who to-day
lives much as the cave-man of France lived so long ago, who
hunts and fishes as he did, who dresses as he did, who builds
liouses in whose architecture some think they can see evidence
of a cavern original, who above all still carves batons from ivory,
and implements from bone, adorning them with skilfully cut
figures of animals and scenes from the chase. This people is
the Eskimo. If Dawkins' view is true, we have in the Eskimo
carvings of to-day a true ethnic survival — an outcropping of the
same passion which displayed itself in the mammoth carving of
La Madelaine.

Scarcely anything in the range of American antiquities has
caused more wonder and led to more discussion than the Animal
Mounds of Wisconsin. We do not pretend to explain their pur-
pose. Perhaps they were village guardians; perhaps tribal totems
marking territorial limits; some may have been of use as game
drives; some may even have served as fetich helpers in the hunt,
like the prey gods of Zuiii. We may never know their full
meaning. It is sufficient here for me to remind you what they
are and where. They are nearly confined to a belt of moderate
width, stretching through Wisconsin and overlapping into Min-
nesota and Iowa. Within this area they occur by hundreds. Dr.
Lapham published a great work on the Effigy Mounds in 1855,
in which he gave the results of many accurate surveys and de-
scribed many interesting localities. Since his time no one has
paid so much attention to the effigies as Stephen D. Peet, editor,
of the American Antiquarian, whose articles have during this
year been presented in book form. Mr. Peet has paid much at-
tention to the kind of animals represented, and has, it seems to
us, more nearly solved the question than any one else. He rec-
ognizes four classes of animals — land animals or quadruped
mammals, alwajs shown in profile; amphibians, always shown as
sprawling, with all four feet represented; birds, recognized by
their wings; and fishes, characterized by the absence of limbs of
any kind. The land animals are subdivided into horned graz-
ers and fur bearers. Of the many species he claims to find, it
seems to us the most sa*:isfactorily identified are the buffalo,
moose, deer, or elk; the panther, bear, fox, wolf, and squirrel; the

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 41

lizard and turtle; the eagle, hawk, owl, goose, and crane; and
fishes. One or two man mounds are known, although most of
those so-called are bird mounds — either the hawk or the owl.
Sometimes, too, ''composite mounds " are found. Nor are these
mounds all that are found. Occasionally the same forms are
found iji intaglio, cut into the ground instead of being built
above it, but just as carefully and artistically made. Notice, in
addition to the form of these strange earth-works, that they are
so skilfully done that the attitude frequently suggests action or
mood. Nor are they placed at random, but are more or less in
harmony with their surroundings. Eemember. too, their great
number and their large size — a man 214 feet long, a beast 160
feet long with a tail measuring 320 feet, a hawk 240 feet in ex-
panse of wing.

They are unique. To be sure, there are in Ohio three effigies,
in Georgia two, and in Dakota some bowlder mosaics in animal
form. None of these, however, are like the Wisconsin type.
The alligator and serpent of Ohio are different in location and
structure from the Wisconsin mounds, and are of designs pecu-
liar. The bird mound in the Newark circle is more like a Wis-
consin effigy, but it is associated with a type of works not found
in the effigy region. The birds of Georgia are different in con-
ception, in material, and in build. The mosaics of Dakota are
simply outlines of loose bowlders.

It seems to us that the effigy builders of Wisconsin were a
peculiar tribe, unlike their mound-building neighbors in Ohio
or the South; that they were a people with a passion for repre-
senting animal figures. This passion worked itself out in these
earth structures. That a single tribe should be thus isolated in
so remarkable a custom is no more strange than that the Haida
should carve slate or the Bushman draw his pictures on his
cavern walls.

Who were the effigy builders? This is a question often asked
and variously answered. Some writers would refer them to the
Winnebagoes, or, if not to them directly, to some Dakota stock
from which the Winnebagoes have descended.

Formerly I was a frequent visitor to the Sac and Fox Reserva-
tion in Iowa. About 400 of the tribe are left. To an unusual
degree they retain the old dress, language, arts, and dances.
With them lived a few Winnebagoes. In general the lives of the
two peoples are similar. Certain arts common to both of them
particularly interested me. Tliey are the making of sacks of barks
and cords, and the weaving of bead bands for legs and arms,
upon the ci-bo-lii-han. Of the bark sacks there are several pat-

42 TEANSACTIONS OF THE [nOV. 17,

terns, the simplest being made of splints of bark passing alter-
nately over and under each other. Another kind, far more
elaborate in construction, is before you. Yet more elaborate ones
are made entirely of cords. The first of these I saw was in old
Jennie Davenport's wikiup. It was of white and black cords,
and the black ones were so manipulated as to form a pattern — a
line of human figures stretching across the sack. Jennie would
not sell it, as she said "it is a Winnebago woman's sack; Fox
woman not make that kind." I found afterward a large variety
of these Winnebago sacks, and all were characterized by patterns
of men, deer, turtles, or other animals. Not one Fox sack of
such pattern was to be found, though many elaborate and beau-
tiful geometrical designs were shown me.

The most beautiful work done on this reservation is the bead-
weaving on the ci-bo-hi-kan — woven work, not sewed, remember.
In appearance the result is like the Iroquois wampum belts, but
the management of the threads is dissimilar. The Sac and Fox
patterns are frequently complex and beautiful, but always
geometrical. We have seen hundreds of them, but none with
life forms. The Winnebago belts, made in exactly the same
way, frequently, if not always, present animals or birds or human
beings.

This, it seems to us, is very curious. Here are people of
two tribes living side by side, with the same mode of life
and the same arts, but in their art designs so diverse. It is
a case parallel to that of the old effigy builders, a people who-
have a passion for depicting animal forms — a passion not shared
by their neighbors.

If this were the only evidence that the Winnebagoes built the
eflBgy mounds, or that their ancestors did so, it would have no
great weight. But the claim has been made already on other
grounds. This being the case, we think that this adds something
to the testimony, and we ask. Have tve here an ethnic survival f

At the close of the paper Dr. Starr exhibited a number of
fine specimens of Indian handiwork, including woven work,
bags, belts, etc.

Dr. Newberry explained that these mounds were not sepul-
chral, like many others in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys.
Geologically speaking,man is very recent. The early inhabitants
of America may have originally come from the East, but, if so,
they were cut off from that part of the world at a very early date.
The development of the tribes in America was complete and far-
reaching. Copper and lead mines were worked, the forests re-

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 43.

moved, and large tracts given over to the cultivation of corn,
grain, etc. This was the Mound Age, and these constructions
were certainly abandoned over one thousand years since. The
Pueblo Indians now existing in Arizona and New Mexico took
their origin from Central America and spread as far north as
Salt Lake, Utah, and south as far as Chili. Their structures
were permanent stone buildings, many of which still exist in a
good state of preservation.

Prof. Munroe found rocks on the Ohio River, near the Penn-
sylvania line, inscribed with figures of men, horses, and other
animals. At low water these figures can be distinctly observed.

Dr. Nkwberry announced that the next meeting of the Geo-
logical Congress would be held in Washington, D. C, August
26th, 1891 ; that of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science at the same place August 19th, 1891.

Dr. H. C. Bolton spoke briefly on the remarkable addition to
chemical knowledge recently made by Prof. Th. Curtius, of
Kiel, viz., a new strong acid called in German " Stickstoffwasser-
stoifsaure" — in English hydrazoic acid — having the formula

N
HN3; or, H-N( II

^N

Curtius obtained it in several ways, the most convenient meth-
od being by converting hippurylhydrazin into nitrosohippuryl-
hydrazin, and decomposing the latter with alkali.

NO

/ /N

C,H,CONHCH,CO. N =C,H,CONHCH,COOH + HN ||

Nitrosohippurylhydrazin, \ Ilippuric acid. \N

NH,

Hydrazoic
acid.

The new acid is a gas, having a frightful suffocating odor, ir-
ritating the mucous membrane and producing headache. It is
very soluble in water, yielding a strong acid solution, like hy-
drochloric acid. This solution dissolves iron, zinc, copper, alu-
minium, and magnesium, with liberation of hydrogen and forma-
tion of nitrides of the metals. With salts of silver and mercury
white precipitates are formed resembling chlorides of these

44 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [NOV. 24,

metals, but the silver compound is not blackened by light ; the
mercurous, copper, and ferrous salts are explosive.

Advantage is taken of the insoluble silver salt to prepare the
acid in a pure state ; boiled with dilute sulphuric acid it yields
hydrazoic acid. An aqueous solution containing 27 per cent of
the gas is much heavier than water and sinks to the bottom of
the vessel into which it is poured. The solution yields white
clouds with ammonia, just like hydrochloric acid. Prof. Cur-
tius plans to build up an entire new series of nitrogen compounds
of greatest interest to the chemical world.

Dr. Bolton spoke of the great importance of the discovery of
the new strong acid from industrial, analytical, and physiological
points of view.

November 24th, 1890.

Stated Meeting.

The President, Dr. Newberry, in the chair.

About two hundred persons present.

The minutes of November 17th were read and approved.

Dr. Bolton announced that a joint meeting of the Academy
and the American Folk-lore Society would be held at Columbia
College, Friday evening, November 28th, at 8 o'clock.

President Newberry announced the opening of the Pablic
Lecture Course of 1890-1891, and introduced Mr. Frederick H.
Chapin, of Hartford, Conn., who spoke on the

CLIFF DWELLINGS OF THE MANGOS CANONS.

The lecture was highly novel and interesting, and was illus-
trated by a large number of lantern views taken by the lecturer.

At the close of the entertainment a vote of thanks was unani-
mously given Mr. Chapin.

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 45

November 28Lh, 1890. ^

Special Meeting, jointly with the American Folk-lore

Society.

Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, President of the American Folk-
lore Society, in the chair.

About one hundred and twenty persons present.

Me. W. W. Newell read a paper on

THE practice OF CONJURING NOXIOUS ANIMALS, AS SURVIV-
ING IN THE FOLK-LORE OF NEW ENGLAND.

Mr. George F. Kunz exhibited a remarkable and valuable
collection of rare objects of folk-lore interest, and read an an-
notated catalogue of the same.

Mr. L. J. Vance read a paper entitled

three LESSONS IN EHABDOMANCY,

which was discussed by Mr. Moncure D. Conway, Mr. Stew-
art CuLiN, and others.
Dr. H. Carrington Bolton read a paper entitled

some HAWAIIAN PASTIMES,

and illustrated it by objects from Niihau, Hawaiian Islands,
and by projections of original photographs.

Dr. John S. Newberry exhibited the following objects : A
prehistoric bronze bell from Japan; a peculiar corn-muller from
Central America; and a half-finished stone axe, showing the
method of boring the hole, from the Swiss lake dwellings. Dr.
Newberry also exhibited the lantern slides illustrating his
paper on ''The Ancient Civilizations of America — Date and
Derivation," but, owing to the lateness of the hour, did not
present the paper, save in brief abstract.

46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ I)K(!. I,

December 1st, 1890.

Regular Business Meeting.

The President, Dr. Newberry, in the chair.

Five persons present.

There being no quornm for the transaction of business, the
meeting adjourned to December Stli, 1890.

December 8th, 1890.

Adjourned Business Meeting.

About twenty-five persons present.

Dr. Bolton announced the illness of the President, Dr.
Newberry, and called on Professor J. K. Eees to preside.

The minutes of the meetings of November 24th and 28th
and December 1st were read and approved.

The following recommendations of the Council (November
26th) were read and approved, and the member duly elected:

I. The payment of the following bills:

M. A. Knight, wrapping and addressing $13 . 25

W. R. Jenkins, card notices of meetings 14.25

$27.50

II. The election of Mr. Sydney A. Smith as Resident
Member.

The Treasurer reported that the cash balance on November
25th was $687.46.

Dr. Orville A. Derby, of Rio Janeiro, Brazil,
was proposed as Corresponding Member.

The following resolution was presented by Dr. Bolton, and
unanimously approved :

"We, the Fellows and Members of the New York Academy of
Sciences, having learned with great regret of the sudden ill-

1890.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 47

ness of our highly esteemed President, Dr. John S. New-
berry,

Resolve, That we extend to him our deep sympathy, and
express the liopes that his recovery may be speedy and com-
plete, and that he may soon be restored to his posts of useful-
ness and honor.

Resolve, That this resolution be entered in the minutes, and
that a copy be sent to President Newberry.

Mr. Harold Jacoby, of Columbia College, then read the
following paper, entitled

THE united states ECLIPSE EXPEDITION TO WEST AFRICA,

1889-90, illustrated by Projectio7is of Original
Photographs.

(Abstract.)

December loth, 1890.

Stated Meeting.

The Vice-President, Dr. Hubbard, in the chair.

About two hundred and twenty-five persons present.

The minutes of December 8th were read and approved.

The name of

Mr. J. Foster Higgins

was proposed as Resident Member.

It was resolved that when the Academy adjourn, it would
adjourn to meet January 5th, 1891.

The second ^lecture of the Public Course was then delivered
by Dr. H. Carrington Bolton, entitled

LIFE and scenes IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, illustrated by
Projections of Original Photographs.

JAN". 5, 1891.] TRANS. OF THE X. Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 49

January 5th, 1891.
Regular Business Meeting.
Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.
About forty persons present.
Minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved.

The following recommendations of the Council were read and
approved, and the members mentioned duly elected : —

I. The appropriation of $275.95 to pay outstanding bills ap-
proved by the Council.

II. The election of Dr. Orville A. Derby, of Rio Janeiro,
South America, as Corresponding Member, and Mr. J. Foster
HiGGiNS as Resident Member.

III. Acceptance of the resignation of Mrs. Martha J. Lamb,

IV. The appropriation of $25 for oflBce expenses of the Re-
cording Secretary.

The Recording Secretary then presented the Revised By-Laws,
as recommended by the Council, and announced that action
would be deferred to the next regular business meeting, Febru-
ary 2d. A copy of these proposed amendments was, by order of
the Academy, mailed to each Resident Member and Fellow.

Vice-President HuBB.vRDthen announced the joint meeting
of the Section of Mineralogy with the New York Mineralogical
Club.

Mr. George F. Kunz, acting as Secretary, read the minutes.

Specimens were exhibited as follows :

Quartz pseudomorphs from Hoxie's Quarries, Paterson, N. J.

Beryls, garnets, and ortlioclase from Manhattan Island.

Mr. George F. Kunz read a paper on

THE discovery OF DIAMONDS AT PLUM CREEK, ROCK ELM

township, pearce county, wis.,
and one on

50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jAN. 5,

THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE OPALS NEAR WHELAN, WASHINGTON

STATE.

[Both these papers will be printed by the Geological Society of
America, Vol, II., 1891.]

He also read a paper on

THE PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE DIAMOND AFTER EXPOSURE TO
SUNLIGHT, AND ALSO BY FRICTION.

Only blue-white diamonds possess the property of emitting light
after exposure to snnlight, but all diamonds, when rubbed in the
dark on a rough board, tile, metal, leather, or cloth, phosphor-
esce in different degrees of intensity, resembling the light pro-
duced by the glow-worm or a phosphorus match. Tlie stones
that emit light after exposure to sunlight show this to a much
greater degree. Dr. Eobert Boyle virtually announced all these
facts about the diamond more than two hundred and thirty years
ago.

A paper describing the two meteorites (one of one hundred
and eighty and one of ten pounds) from Washington County,
Kansas, and a thirty-pound meteoric iron from Floyd County,
Virginia, will be published later on.

Mr. Gilman S. Stanton read a paper on

THE OCCURRENCE OF BERYLS AND GARNETS ON NEW YORK

ISLAND.

(Abstract.)

I have been requested to exhibit to the Academy some beryls
and garnets which I obtained from a vein at 65tii street and
Ninth, or Columbus, avenue of this city. A number of the
members of the Mineralogical Club know of this vein, but, as it
has recently yielded some large beryls, perhaps a short descrip-
tion of it would be of interest.

Nearly three years ago I first discovered that this vein con-
tained a remarkable quantity of interesting, beautiful, and ex-
ceedingly perfect crystals of garnet. For about a month, while
the blasting continued, I succeeded in getting a large number of
specimens. The vein, which was of a coarse granite, cut a light-
colored variety of the gneiss of this city and averaged some

1891.] NEW YOEK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 51

three feet in width. The mica of the granite was muscovite,
often in imperfect crystals seven inches across and as much in
thickness. The smoky quartz and orthoclase occurred in cor-
respondingly large masses, the orthoclase sometimes being
crystallized.

The garnets were most plentiful at the junction of these two
minerals, usually upon a face of an orthoclase crystal. The
garnet faces in the orthoclase were generally flattened, as the
numerous shallow casts on the specimens here indicate. Crys-
tals from the smoky quartz were fewer, but mucli lighter in color
and more translucent. Some of the groups are very beautiful.
One consists of fifty-nine crystals about three-eighths of an inch
in diameter, and nearly as many more casts, on a part of an ortho-
clase crystal ten by eight by four inches.

An interesting feature of the garnets was their crystalline
form. They were the combination of the trapezohedron trun-
cating the rhombic dodecahedron, the faces of each being about
equally prominent. The largest crystal was one and a quarter
inches in axial diameter. Few were less than one-quarter of an
inch. One specimen on the table shows faces of the hexocta-
hedron, in addition to those before mentioned, thus giving the
crystal the appearance of rounded edges.

As the blasting continued the character of the granite changed.
The muscovite was smaller, and oligoclase in masses nearly as
large as the orthoclase became common. The garnets were
scarcer, and their crystalline form was generally the unmodified
trapezohedron. To my knowledge no simple dodecahedrons
were found.

The blasting was shortly discontinued, and was only recom-
menced a short time ago. Garnets were, however, comparatively
few and imperfectly crystallized trapezohedrons. While search-
ing, with the hope that some good garnets might still remain, a
half-inch beryl was found, and shortly afterward a large jointed
crystal in all some ten inches long. It was impossible to get
this crystal out whole. The best piece is upon the table. The
crystal was intersected at the joints by seams of quartz, remind-
ing one of many tourmaline crystals of this city. Although not
clear or colored enough to be called emeralds, fractures and
splinters show them to be quite glassy and translucent.

Besides the minerals already mentioned, some tourmaline and
a small black crystal in orthoclase, possibly columbite, have been
taken from this vein.

I am inclined to think the vein metamorphic in its origin, and
it evidently cooled slowly and with but little disturbance.

52 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jAN. 12^

Dr. H. T. Vulte was proposed as Fellow of the Academy by
Prof. N. L. Britton.

January 12th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.
Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.
About thirty-five persons present.
Minutes of January 5th were read and approved.
The following paper was read :

BAHAMAN BIRDS.
BY DR. JOHN I. NORTHROP.

(Abstract.)

After a few preliminary remarks upon the situation and size
of the Bahamas, tlie speaker stated that a paper giving the de-
tails of the collection of birds would appear in the Auk for
January. He stated tliat all the species, seventy-four in num-
ber, were represented by the specimens on the table, but that lie
would only call attention to the most interesting.

The following birds were then exhibited and remarked upon :
Miniocichia plumbea, Mitnus pnlyglotlU, Mimus Gundlachi,
Polioptila cwrulea ccB.nogaxter, Sciurus aurocapillus, Glotlilypis
rostrata (a local form, slightly differing from the typical species
found on New Pi'ovidenoe), Callichelidon cya?ieoviridis, Dori-
clia evelynm, Sporadinus ricordi,Chordeiles minor, Ictnrus Nor-
thropi (a new species of a genus not before reported from the
Bahamas, and which has been described and named by Dr. J. A.
AWew), Cocyzus minor Mai/nardi,Saurothera Bahamensis, Phmni-
copterus ruber (the habits and mode of capture being desciibcd),
Nycti corax nycticorax nmvius (new to the Bahamas), Rallus
Coreyi, Ardea Bahamensis, and several other water birds.

The speaker also mentioned finding in the stomach of Aiitros-
tonnis Caroliiiensis an entire hummingbird sufficiently undi-
gested to identify as Sporadinus ricordi.

He stated that the only mammals on Andros were bats, rats,
and mice. The bat was Macrotus Waierhousei,^ and the rat

' Kindly determined by Prof. J. A. Allen.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 53

Mus rattus. The skin of the iguana, Cychera hcBolopha, was
exhibited, and the method of capture described. A few lizards
were also shown, eight or nine species having been collected.
The speaker had collected species of snakes, the largest of
which, a species of boa-constrictor, was exhibited.

He briefly mentioned the large collection of invertebrates, and
stated that, for the most part, it had not yet been worked up.
One of the Anemones, however, is probably new. In this con-
nection the speaker called attention to the interest connected
with the geographical distribution of the AcLiniaria, as Prof.
McMurrich considered them to be related to Pacific forms.

In conclusion, Dr. Northrop mentioned the collection of
plants, comprising about seven thousand specimens, and repre-
senting about six hundred to seven hundred species. These, he
stated, were being worked up by Mrs. Northrop, and thirty or
forty of the species were in all probability new.

The plants, as well as the birds, are decidedly Antillean in
character and affinities.

At the close of the paper the meeting adjourned.

January 19th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.

About one hundred and fifty persons present.

The minutes of January 12th were read and approved.

The following resolutions were offered by Dr. Bolton, and
unanimously adopted :

Whereas, Captain Thomas L. Casey, Corresponding Sec-
retary of this Academy, and editor of the Annals, has himself
borne the entire expenses of publishing the edition of Numbers
^, 10, 11, and 12, Vol. V., of the Annals (pages 307 to 501),
said numbers containing his valuable contributions to Coleop-
terologv ; therefore.

Resolved, That the thanks of the Academy are due, and are
hereby offered, to Captain Casey for his generosity ; also,

Resolved, That the name of Captain Thomas L. Casey be
enrolled in the list of Pations of the Academy; and further

54 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jAN. 26,

Resolved, That this preamble and these resolutions be entered
on the minutes, and be communicated to Captain Casey.

Dr. Hubbard introduced Prof. A. J. Dubois, of Yale Uni-
versity, New Haven, Conn., who delivered a lecture on the fol-
lowing subject :

SCIENCE and miracle.

At the close the Academy passed a vote of thanks to Prof^
Dubois, and then adjourned.

January 26th, 1891.
Stated Meeting.
Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.
About forty persons present.

Minutes of January 19th were read and approved.
The following papers were read :

the geographical DISTRfBUTION OF NORTH AMERICAN

MAMMALS.

BY PROF. J. A. ALLEN.

(No abstract.)

THE ORIGIN OF THE AVEFAUNA OF THE BAHAMAS.
BY FRANK M. CHAPMAN.

(Abstract.)

The conclusions from this paper may be classified as follows :

1. The Bahamas are largely West Indian in their affinities, and
the group of islands may claim the rank of a fauna of the Antil-
lean region characterized by the prevalence of forms differenti-
ated from their West Indian ancestors and by the infusion of a
slight Floridian element.

2. A greater number of endemic species have been derived
from Cuba than from any other region.

3. North American migrant species which breed in higher

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 55

latitudes, while occurring in the Bahamas in large numbers
during certain seasons of the year, have not assisted in forming
the resident avefauna.

4. The avefauna is of comparatively recent origin.

5. Forms of a common ancestor may be differentiated from
this ancestor in much the same manner, and thus, though hav-
ing widely separated habitats, more closely resemble each other
than they do the parent species.

6. In several instances certain Bahaman forms inhabiting con-
tiguous islands have become differentiated from each other with-
out, so far as we can observe, being subjected to changed climatic
or physiographic conditions.

7. We may perhaps assume from this that these birds origi-
nally owe their characters to individual variations which, among
a limited number of individuals, have become permanent and
specific.

February 2d, 1891.

Regular Business Meeting,

Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.

About thirty persons present.

The minutes of January 5th were read and approved.

The following recommendations of the Council (January
39th) were approved and the persons mentioned elected:

I. Payment of sundry bills amounting to $64.81.

II. The election of Dr. H. T. Vulte, of Columbia College, as
a Fellow of the Academy, and Baron de Kroustchoff, Ph.D.,
M.D., of St. Petersburg, Russia, as Corresponding Member.

III. Accepting the resignation of Calvert Vaux.

IV. The nomination of Messrs. L. H. Jacoby, Emory
McClintock, and John Tatlock, Jr., as Fellows of the Aca-
demy.

The proposed amendments of the By-Laws which were intro-
duced January 5th were then taken up and discussed by chap-
ter and section; with some further slight amendments they were
unanimously adopted.

56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [FEB. 9,

[JV^ole. — A copy of such amended By-laws has been sent to each
Resident Member and Fellow, and will appear in the Trans-
actions at the close of the current volume.]

George L. English was proposed as a Resident Member by
George F. Kunz.

Prof. Martin announced the death of Prof. Felipe Poey,
of Havana, Cuba, a Corresponding Member of the Academy.
The following is a brief sketch of his life:

Seflor Poey was born in Havana in 1802. While a law stu-
dent at Madrid he fled to Paris, being involved in some political
conspiracy. After 1830 he returned to Havana, where he be-
came professor of natural history in the University. He pub-
lished accounts of more than 230 species of fishes before un-
described, and attained distinction in general literature. He
has published "La Centurie des Lepidopteres" (1828), works
on Cuba (1840, 1842), " Geografia Universal" (1842), and
'^Memorias sobre la Historia de la Isla de Cuba'^ (1864).

The following paper was read by title:

ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING OCCURRENCES OF MINERALS
AND PRECIOUS STONES IN THE UNITED STATES.

BY GEORGE F. KUNZ.

February 9th, 1891.
Stated Meeting.
About fifteen persons present.

In the absence of any of the regular ofiBcers, Prop. D. S. Mar-
tin was called to the chair.

The minutes of January 26th were read and approved.

Prof. Martin then read the following ticket for officers for
the ensuing year, recommended by the Council February 6th,
1891:

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 57

NOMINATIONS OF OFFICERS FOR 1891-'92.

Presicleiit, John S. Newberry.

First Vice-President, Oliver P. Hubbard.

Second Vice-President, J. A. Allen.

Corresponding Secretary, Thomas L. Casey.

Recording Secretary, H. Carrington Bolton.

Treasurer, Henry Dudley.

Librarian, John I. Northrop.

Councillors, N. L. Britton, Charles F. Cox, A. A. Julien,
I). S. Martin, J. K. Rees, J. J. Stevenson.

Curators, Geo. F. Kunz, John I. Northrop, N, L. Brit-
ton, D. S. Marti NT, H. T. Vulte.

Finance Committee, John H. Hinton, H. G. Marquand,
O. B. Potter.

Dr. a. p. Ledoux exhibited specimens of petroleum oil oc-
cluded in quartz crystals from Marsluill County, Ala.

The following paper was then lead :

NOTES ON the SWEET GRASS HILLS OF MONTANA AND THE
KOOTENAI MINES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

BY ALBERT R. LEDOUX, M.S., PH.D.

(Abstract.)

It would be no evidence of ignorance if, in speaking of the
Great Northern Railway, I should be asked, ''Where is it?"
for so quietly has the consolidation of the lines which make up
this great system been effected that there are even railroad men to-
day who would be unable to name tiie principal towns along its
route ; and yet its earnings during the month of January just
past were $793,638. It is the creation of Mr. James J. Hdl, of
St. Paul, who conceived the bold idea of building a new line
from the great lakes to the Pacific Ocean on a theory never here-
tofore attempted by any transcontinental line — that is, to build
where the best grade was obtained, without consideration for
local towns or local traffic, so that when completed it will form
a link from ocean to ocean which will secure traffic because it

58 TEANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 9,

can be run at so moderate an expense compared with other
lines. . . . And so the Great Northern is building, dividing-
the great territory between the Northern Pacific and Canadian
Pacific road?, from St. Paul on the east to Fairhaven, on Pnget
Sound, on the we^t ; and the surveys show a route not only the
shortest by two hundred miles, but on which the average grade
will be very much less than by any other transcontinental line,
and the maximum grade about one-third of its most favorably
situated competitor. . . .

The trip upon which I made the observations that I am to-
outline this evening was taken with a view of examining and
reporting upon the resources of the country through which the
Great Northern is to run, and I have selected two points which
are of geological as well as economic interest for this evening^s
talk.

All along the main line, from St. Paul to Great Falls, towns
and ranches and herders' corrals are springing up with the usual
Western push and promise, Great Falls itself being the most con-
spicuous example. Six years ago there were a dozen houses at
this point, scattered along the banks of the Missouri, and perhaps
the most stupendous and available water power on the continent
was only looked upon as one of nature's curiosities. Land was
worth two dollars an acre. To-day there is a city of about five
thousand inhabitants, with electric railway, electric lights, sewers,
good hotels, five banks, and all the elements of a commercial cen-
tre. Over a million dollars are being expended in the erection of
great smelting establishments, and a dam costing nearly a quar-
ter of a million of dollars has been built to furnish a great water
power for other manufacturing industries in process of devel-
opment.

Within about two miles of old Fort Assinniboine, the new line
now buililing to the coast leaves the Great Falls branch and
starts westward. About eighty miles northwest of Assinniboine
are the Sweet Grass Hills, serving as the source of the Sage and
Cottonwood creeks, and surrounded on three sides by the Milk
River — the latter a considerable stream, which, rising in Ameri-
can territory, flows north into the British possessions, and, after
running some two hundred miles parallel with the border, returns
to United States territory just east of the Sweet Grass country.

On our maps the Sweet Grass Hills are represented as a range
running east and west just south of the Canadian boundarj', and
as they are approached from the direction of Assinniboine this
view seems to be justified; but on a nearer view they subdivide
into three separate buttes, distant about thirty miles from the
Great Northern extension, and locally known as the North, Mid-

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 59

die, and South butfces, the two latter being striking in appear-
ance, forming steep, rugged cones, while the North Butie is
somewhat less precipitous and covers more ground. Leaving
the railroad survey at a point three thousand feet above the sea
level, the prairie rises gradually some nine hundred feet in thirty
miles. There are no signs of civilized life in this whole district,
excepting that as the hills are approached there are remains of a
Government corral, suggestive of Indian days, and the homes of
one or two settlers upon the head waters of the creeks appear.

The prairie is strewn with glacial drift bowlders — apparently
of quite recent deposition, as they are so little embedded in the
soil — with sharp angles and edges, consisting of porphyry and
syenite. There are no rocks in place, save here ami tliere where
streams have cut into the prairie; these are soft, calcareous and
clay sandstones and shales, evidently very late Cretaceous or Ter-
tiary. Upon reaching the most easterly butte it is seen to be
divided into several peaks, the most sontherly and most promi-
nent being called locally "Mt. Morris." Approaching this
mountain the ground is thickly strewn with every kind of ig-
neous rock — dark green basalts, phonolite, and every variety of
feldspathic porphyry. The summit of Mt. Morris I found by
observation to be six thousand three hundred feet above sea level
and two thousand four hundred feet above the old Government
stockade. The mountain mass, like that of the two other buttes,
is a grayish porphyry containing small feldspar crystals, but
gHshed and seamed by dike after dike of trap and large crystal
birdseye porphyry. Between these dikes are older clay slates,
mica schists, hornblendic schists, all inclined at a sharp angle
against the mountain, and indicating clearly the intrusive char-
acter of the mass.

The quartzite carries free gold in considerable quantity, and
where crossed by mountain streams some very rich pay gravel
is found, which, owing to the scarcity of water, can hardly
become available ; but I was informed tiiat miners have carried
it down the hill and washed it in the Cottonwood with profit.
The decomposed and altered slates also gave evidence of gold,
but no development had been instituted. Here and there
along the hillside were float masses of manganese and bowlders
of magnetic iron, but the most remarkable and interesting
feature, geologically, is a collar of limestone surrounding the
. mountain about two-thirds of the way up. This limestone
belt is nowhere wider thpn seven hundred or eight hundred feet,
but forms a complete circle, excepting upon the southern slope,
where it is either broken or its continuity concealed by the
talus from the porphyry cliffs above. It is highly metamor-

60 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [FEB. 9,

pliosed in places, is tilted up at a sharp angle, and shows every
rariety, from gray and blue to a fine white statuary marble
quite equal to the Carara. Near the summit of Mt. Morris
I found a vein of quartzite running northeast and southwest,
showing evidence of galena and stringers of gray copper, but
without any development worthy of mention.

From the summit of Mt. Morris the other peaks which to-
gether form the mass of the East Butte are observed, being
named respectively Mounts Lebanon, Brown, and Royal. De-
scending Mt. Morris toward the west and nortli, tlie limestone
collar is soon reached and was followed by me to the north and
east.

At the contact between the marble ami porphyry on the
north side occurs an interesting deposit of magnetic iron ore,
showing, where decomposed at the surface, copper stains, and
carrying traces of copper at certain spots. The outcrop is from
forty to fifty feet in width, and extends for seven hundred or
eiglit hundred feet in the arc of a circle, following the lime-
stone contact, and has been prospected in a number of points by
shafts, tunnels, and cross-cuts, indicating a probable permanency
to a considerable depth. At one point a shaft fifty-four feet deep
was all in ore, with a cut extending southward for forty feet, all
in solid magnetite, without, as yet, going through it. This ore
yields sixty per cent of iron by assay and is low in phosphorus.
Its location, however, renders it of little value for many years to
come. From the fact that magnetic bowlders were noticed by
me on the north side of the mountain and also on the eastern
slope, I am ready to believe that this iron-ore bed may be found
to extend for several thousand feet further than it has been ex-
plored as yet.

I had no opportunity to examine the other peaks of the East
Butte, nor to ascend iMther the Middle or West Butte, but was
informed by an intelligent miner that they consisted of por-
phyry similar to Mt. Morris, with the same dikes of trap, and
with indications of copper, lead, and gold, but practically un-
prospected.

The line of the Great Northern running westward from
Assinniboine will cross the famous Flathead country between
the main range and the Bitter Root range of the R)ckies, over-
coming the former through the Marias Pass. This Flathead
country promises remarkable developments in coal, iron, and
other metals, but is at present almost unexplored, excepting
around the lake and reservation, and is a paradise for the lover
of big game. Then turning northward, the line will strike the
Kootenai River at the point where from its southern flow it

3891.] NEW YOKE ACADEMY OF SOIENCES. Gl

abruptly turns northward, and will run parallel to the river to a
point about eight miles from Bonner's Ferry.

At present this most interesting Kootenai region is best
reached by the Northern Pacific line to Kootenai Station, about
thirty miles east of Spokane Falls, whence a stage ride of thirty-
three miles brings one to Bonner's Ferry.

The natural commercial outlet of Kootenai Lake is south.
ward into the United States, and the Northern Pacific has al-
ready made several surveys from their line to Bonner's Ferry,
which IS at present the head of navigation on the Kootenai
River; but it is hardly likely that this line will be built, since
the Great Northern will be running to within eight miles of
this point next year.

The Kootenai River is navigable for one hundred and twenty
miles above the lake to Bonner's Ferry, and is singularly free
from shoals, bars, or similar impediments. It is a sluggish,
very winding stream, from two hundred to five hundred feet in
width, flowing through rich bottoms which grow hay, grain, and
potatoes in the greatest luxuriance, but which are liable to over-
flow when the river is swollen by the melting snows of the
spring.

Kootenai Lake is ninety miles long and of unknown depth;
soundings are said to have been made at points to a depth of
fifteen hundred feet without finding bottom. This is quite
likelv from its situation, as it lies between two of the ranges of
the Selkirks, which are quite precipitous at these points and
slope directly into the water. Indeed, it is not possible at high
water to walk for any considerable distance along the shore, as
the rocks come perpendicularly into the water at many points.
Kootenai L;ike never freezes, but navigation on the river is
interrupted for about three months in the winter by ice; al-
though it is said that a strong boat could readily keep the
stream open during the whole season, at least as far south as the
boundary.

The mountains of the Selkirk range consist of a hard gray
granite, their peaks rising from five thousand to nine thousand
feet above the sea. The mountains in the immediate vicinity
of the lake are not higher than six thousand feet, but beyond
and to the north, on a clear day, a wilderness of summits
rising one above another is visible, snow-capped and glacier-
covered. The Canadian Geological Survey have published a
special bulletin on the geology of this region, based on a visit in
1889, and the data then obtained have convinced Dr. Dawson
that the lake occupies a depression largely formed by the wear-
ing away of the more recent stratified rocks, which are still

62 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 9,

observed, thoiigli highly metamorphosed, on the sliores and
mountiiin-siiles. My own observations confirm this belief, and
I would add that these stratified or metamorphic rocks are not
horizontally imposed upon the granites, but their phine of pre-
sent position is inclined at an angle of perhaps forty-five degrees
with the horizon. On the eastern shore of the hike the mica
schists, shales, and crystalline limestone are to be found crop-
ping out — coming to a thin edge — at a point not over a mile
distant from the lake, and at an elevation of not more than two
hundred or three hundred feet, above which nothing but granite
occurs; while on the western shore these stratified beds are found
extending nearly to the summit of the range, at an elevation of
five thousand feet, and distant, on tiie incline, several thousand
feet from the water's edge.

It is unnecessary to speak of the geology of the district any
further, or to repeat Pjofessor Dawson's careful observations
which are noted in his report ; but I will proceed at once to the
mineral resources, an examination of which was the object of
my visit to Kootenai.

Mineral development is but just entering upon its earliest
stages in the district, and yet, for the short time since explora-
tion was commenced, a great deal has been done. On the west-
erly side of the lake is the Warm Springs Camp, so named from
a warm calcareous spring which flows out on the lakeside in
characteristic pools, basins, and terraces, the water of which
is said to be beneficial in some forms of skin diseases. 1 ascended
the mountain above the town of Warm Springs, to a height of five
thousand three hundred feet above sea level, by one trail, and de-
scended by another some miles to the southward, taking in en
route some of the principal prospects. There are apparently
five parallel ledges running north and south, some of them in a
crystalline limestone, others in the granite and altered schists,
and still others at the westerly contact between the limestone
and the granite. These lodes are located upon for two or three
miles north and the same distance south of Warm Springs, and
apparently vary from six hundred feet to one-half mile apart.

There are more than three hundred locations filed in the dis-
trict. The ore is principally galena, with more or less native sil-
ver, some brittle silver, and a little sulphide of copper. Through
the courtesy of the officials I was permitted to make an extract
of the returns of ores shipped out during the summer of 1889 :
one hundred and forty-six tons assaying eighty-seven ounces of
silver; eighty-five tons, ninety ounces; seventy tons, two hundred
and thirty ounces; sixty-five tons, forty ounces; twenty ton?, one
hundred and twenty ounces; fifteen tons, two hundred and

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 63

twenty-five ounces; fifteen tons, one hundred and nineteen
ounces; and twelve tons, ninety-five ounces. The lead varied
from twenty to seventy per cent. Daring 1890 considerable
more was shipped.

The deepest mine in the camp is only one hundred and thirty-
two feet deep, and, as all the ore has to be packed down at pre-
sent, and the expenses of getting to smelters in the absence of
railway transportation are so great, it is being piled up at the
mines, awaiting further development.

Ascending the mountain, I first examined the ''Jeff Davis"
claim, which is about seven hundred feet above the level of the
lake. The vein is quite well defined, showing eighteen inches
of ore in mica schist. The pure galena carries about twenty
ounces of silver to the ton. This vein is m the first lode from
the lake, at a height of about eleven hundred feet above it. In
the second lode is the *' Spokane," showing a twenty-six inch
-vein of galena in mica schist, the pure galena carrying about
forty ounces of silver to the ton. Tne gangue is quartz, and
a considerable amount of iron pyrites is visible, but only a few
feet of shaft have been sunk on the vein. On this same lode
are several extensions more or less developed. Following up this
trail, I next came to the " Sunlight," at an elevation of nine-
teen hundred feet, and in the third of the main lodes. This
is in the limestone, and shows considerable development, the
ore being more or less oxidized, the mineral body being twenty
inches in diameter, uncovered for some distance, and the clear
galena assaying sixty ounces of silver.

There are several more claims on this lode, with more or less
development. In the fourth lode I next looked at the " No.
1," at an elevation of twenty-five hundred feet above the lake.
Considerable work has been done. The ore body is large, se-
lected samples showing one hundred and fifty-seven ounces of
silver to the ton. The mineral, partly carbonate, partly galena,
occurs in grayish limestone and is uncovered for several hun-
dred feet. The ore is very friable and decomposed at the sur-
face, but sulphurets and wire silver are found at deptii.

There are a number of other locations on this lode, but I did
not visit them. The highest claim is the " Sky Line," situated
soutliwest of, and over a mile from, the last, at an elevation of
nearly five thousand three hundred feet above sea level. It is
being actively and liberally developed, the vein being fourteen
feet wide and the ore showing considerable wire silver. Near
the surface it is very much altered and decomposed, but at
depth considerable galena is obtained. This ore is being packed
to the lake, and shipments of several carloads of selected ma-
terial have yielded three hundred ounces of silver.

64 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 9,

Descending by the southern trail, I passed a number of mines
in active operation, such as the "Little Donald," on the same
lode as the " Spokane"; the " Krao/' showing considerable ore
body and a promising galena said to assay ninety ounces of sil-
ver. This mine is at an altitude of four huntlred feet. Above
this was the "United,'' showing coarsely crystalline galena rich
in silver.

This will serve to indicate the general features and prospects
of the Hot Springs Camp. Unquestionably there is a great deal
of ore, and a large supply can be depended upon from this
camp, in spite of the fact that no one claim has as yet been
worked to such a depth that any certain conclusions can be
drawn as to the permanency of the deposits.

It may be said in general that the ores in the limestone are
dry and very rich, though perhaps uncertain in extent, as is
usually the case. Whetiier any of the veins in the schists and
granite are true fissures it is perhaps impossible to say at this
stage of the development. Most of these mines will become con-
centrating propositions, and furnish a large amount of silver as
well as lead.

Across the lake from the Warm Springs, a headland juts out
nearly a mile beyond the ordinary shore line, bounded by bays
at the north and south. Looking at this headland from across
the lake, it may be described as consisting of two hills, the north-
ernmost perhaps two hundred and twenty-five feet above the
lake level, and the southernmost one hundred feet higher, di-
vided by a valley sloping to the lake shore. Upon this pro-
montory are situated the Hendryx group of mines, consisting of
the " Blue Bell," "Silver King," " Fraction," etc. The rocks
of the peninsula are principiilly mica schists, with occasional
dikes of trap and highly metamorphosed limestone. Parallel
witii the lake, and running north and south through the entire
peninsula, is a very large vein of sulphurets, varying from ten
to twelve feet on tlie "Kootenai Chief," where it emerges from
the lake on the south, to the width of over eighty feet on the
"Blue Bell" claim, when it again narrows and disappears in
the lake on the north in the "Comfort'^ location.

This vein is strong and persistent for over three thousand feet,
showing again and again on the surface of the ground, in places
■ carrying galena, but principally made up of iron pyrites, zinc
blende with a little copper, etc.

Upon none of these claims, excepting the central ones, owned by
the Kootenai Miningand SmeltingCo., has there been any serious
development work, but the latter have been thoroughly pros-
pected in a way to open out a great body of lead ore, with

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 65>

undoubted promise of making this camp one of the principal pro-
ducers of lead in Britisli Columbia, if not on the continent. , . .
The greatest masses of galena are contained in offshoots from,
this main vein on the easterly side, and are of great importance
and value.

The surface indications on the vein proper for galena are, as
stated, not very numerous, but the moment it is crossed on the
Hendryx claims the ground is found to be strewn with masses
of carbonate, or galena more or less oxidized, and upon these
chutes there are pits and openings which reveal their extent.

This galena property has been developed by a tunnel some
eight hundred feet long at an angle with the strike of the ore
body, which cuts, in its course, first about two hundred feet of
quartzite and mica schist, then a dike of porphyry six feet wide,
then forty-five feet of quartzite, then thirty feet of marble, then
seventy feet of sulphurets, and then alternations of limestone
and galena ore, over seventy feet of the latter being exposed
at one point, on which an upraise to the surface two hundred
and fifty feet above has been made, with drifts at the one hun-
dred and two hundred foot levels, showing large bodies of ore.

It is safe to predict that this property, when an outlet is made
into the United States by railroad connection, and, above all,
when I'eciprocity with our northern neighbors becomes an estab-
lished fact, will form the basis of a large and profitable smelting
operation. The galena in this mine is low in silver, while that
of the average ore across the lake is quite high. One peculiarity,
by the way, of this district, which was new to me in my experi-
ence, was finding coarse-grained galena carrying considerable
silver, and the fine-grained galena comparatively poor in silver.
This is a reversal of the conditions usually found in lead-silver
ores.

Tributary to the Kootenai Lake are already springing up nu-
merous promising mineral localities. The various creeks and
streams flowing into the lake bring down gold-bearing float, and
even coal, after freshets, has been found on the shores of upper
Kootenai. At Nelson and Toad Mountain are promising copper
camps, while from Goat River prospectors are bringing very
handsome specimens of copper sulphurets. The Toad Mountain
copper ore especially is high in silver.

Development has practically but just commenced in this sec-
tion of British Columbia, and it is reasonably certain that the
great masses of the Selkirks in the area now practically unex-
plored, between tiie head of Kootenai Lake and the Canadian
Pacific Railroad, will yield considerable mineral. At any rate,
if the political horizon does not deceive us, the smelters of Mon-

66 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 23,

tana and Colorado may soon look to a supply of lead ore from
Kootenai in the shape of concentrates, of which they have been,
to their great loss, deprived by the exclusion of Mexican sul-
phurets by our tariff.

The following papers were then read:

THE PRECIPITATION OF SUSPENDED SILT AND CLAY IN KIVEK

WATERS

and

THE DISCOVERY OF A STARCH-DIGESTING FERMENT IN COW'S
MILK, AND ITS RELATION TO NUTRITION.

BY PROF. A. R. LEEDS.

(No Abstracts.)

February 16th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.

About one hundred persons present.

The minutes of February 9th were read and approved.

The fourth lecture of the Public Course was delivered by
Prof. Wallace Goold Levison, of Brooklyn, N. Y., entitled

instantaneous photography as an aid to science, his-
tory, AND ART.

Illustrated by a large number of novel lantern views.

At the close of the lecture a vote of thanks was offered to the
lecturer.

February 23d, 1891.

Annual Meeting.
Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.
About twenty-five persons present.
The minutes of February 16th were read and approved.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 67

The report of the Council was read, recommending the for-
mation of a Section in Astronomy. In accordance with this re-
port the following resolution was adopted:

Resolved, That the recommendation of the Council for the
formation of a Section of Astronomy in the New York Academy
of Sciences be approved.

REPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRETARY FOR THE YEAR END-
ING FKBRUARY 23d, 1891.

New York, February 23d, 1891.
There have been 13 meetings of the Council, 38 meetings of
the Academy (including 9 public lectures), and 4 joint meetings.
Thirty-one formal or announced papers have been read as
follows, on

Mineralogy 8

Geology 4

Chemistry 4

Zoology 4

Ethnology 5

Archaeology 2

Engineering 2

Miscellaneous 2

Besides nine papers read by title and a number of informal
communications on a variety of topics.

The average attendance at meetings, exclusive of public lec-
tures, is 20.

There are 239 Resident Members, including 66 Fellows.

During the past year the Academy has elected

14 Resident Members,

11 Corresponding Members,

1 Honorary Member,

2 Fellows.

Fifteen members were lost by death, resignation, etc.

Submitted by

H. Carrington Bolton,
Recording Secretary.
Approved_February 23d, 1891.

68

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

|feb. 23,

The New York Academy of Sciences in Account with
Henry Dudley, Treasurer.

February 24tb, 1890, to February 23d, 1891.

disbursements.

Dr. For printing Annals and Trans-
actions $1,551 33

" paper and addressing same. ... 13 25

Publication Committee ,

D. S. Martin, salary as Editor

H. T. Vulte, salary as Assistant Rec. Sec'y

express, paper, postage, freigbt, etc

printing letter beads, envelopt-s, receipts,

and postals

lecture expenses

binding publications

engravings, electrotypes

insurance

janitorial services

deposit in Library Fund $1' 00

" General " 80 00

Balance in Second National Bank,

564

58

^t2

73

200

00

300

00

198

85

127

85

45

00

132

05

18

00

20

00

107

75

180

00

314

38

Total,

13,251 18

receipts.

Or. By Balance February 24tb, 1890 |i856 96

" life membersbip fee 100 00

'' membersbip fees 14u 00

" sale of Annals and Transactions 45 22

" TJ. S. 4 per cent, regular interest. 152 00
" . " " " coupon " ..12 00

164 00

'' gift from Captain T. L. Casey 80 00

" annual dues 1,865 00

Total,

$3,251 18

3 891. J XEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 69

SECURITIES ON HAND.

U. S. Gov't 4 per cent consols, regular 13,800 00

" " " " *' coupons 300 00

Savings bank accounts: —

General fund 1,006 97

Publication fund 782 03

February 33d, 1891.

$5,889 00
Henry Dudley, Treasurer.

March 14th, 1891. — I hereby certify that I have this day ex-
amined tlie vouchers and securities of Henry Dudley, Esq.,
Treasurer of the New York Academy of Sciences, and find them
correct. John H. Hinton, M.D., Okairman Audit. Com,

REPORT of the AUDUBON" MONUMENT COMMITTEE.

The Committee appointed to procure funds for the erection
of a suitable monument to John James Audubon over his grave
in Trinity Cemetery, would i-eport that other pressing duties
made it necessary for the members of the Committee to tempo-
rarily suspend active operations during the first part of the year.
Recently appeals for subscriptions have again been made, with a
gratifying result, nearly 11,000 having been paid over to the
Treasurer during the last six months.

The financial situation may be stated as follows: —

Money received from all sources to date .12,088 70

Expenses of the Committee to date 270 26

Balance on hand $1,818 50

Subscriptions conditional on $10,000 being raised for

the monument , $1,400 00

Total amount subscribed to date 13,218 50

The Committee would respectfully request to be continued.

For the Committee,

N. L. Britton,
Secretary and 2Veasurer.

70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 23,

The Corresponding Secretary made Ji verbal report, which
was approved.

The Chairman of the Publication Committee and the
Librarian presented no reports.

Messrs. Casey and Britton were appointed tellersfor the An-
nual Election. After the casting of the ballots they reported
that the following ticket was elected: —

officers for 1S91-'92.

President, John S. Newber,ry.

First Vice-President, Oliver P. Hubbard.

Second Vice-President, J. A. Allen.

Corresponding Secretary, Thomas L. Casey.

Recording Secretary, H. Carrington Bolton.

Treasurer, Henry Dudley.

Librarian, John I. Northrop.

Councillors, N. L. Britton, Charles F. Cox, A. A. Juliek,
D. S. Martin, J. K. Rees, J. J. Stevenson.

Curators, Geo. F. Kunz, John I. Northrop, N. L. Brit-
ton, D. S. Martin, H. T. A^ulte.

Finance Committee, John H. Hinton, H. G. Marquand^
0. B. Potter.

Prof. Martin announced the death of Philip A. White, a
Resident Member, and Prof. Alexander Winchell, a Corre-
sponding Member. Mr. Garrettson spoke of Prof. Win-
chell as a classmate and life-long friend.

A letter from J. Francis Williams was read by the Secre-
tary, announcing the discovery of a new mineral monticellite,
containing perhaps some alumina as a replacement of the iron.
The foci are given as aP, aPa, aPs, Pcx, P Pa. The a Pot
is extremely large as compared with most species of monticel-
lite, and gives the crystals the appearance of being of equal di-
mensions in all directions at right angles to the vertical axis.
It is also columnar, and the fundamental prism aP is more
decidedly developed than the aPT foci. The crystals have some-
what the appearance of monazite crystals, with this exception.

1891.] NEW YOKE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 71

Prof. Allen announced that a new species of thrush had
been discovered in Dominica, an island of the Lesser Antilles.

The following paper was read, entitled

RECENT WORK IN NORTH AMERICAN MAMMALOGY.
BY J. A. ALLEN, PH.D.

(Abstract.)

The present review of recent progress in North American
mammalogy relates especially to the period since the appearance
of Baird's great work on the mammals of North America, pub-
lished in 1857, forming Volume VIII. of the Government Re-
ports on Explorations and Surveys for a Eailroad Route from
the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, made during the
years 1853-56. While that work is taken as the basis of depar-
ture, it is of interest to note briefly some of the more important
of the earlier works relating to North American mammals.

A review of the history of North American natural history
necessarily begins with Catesby, whose great work, " The Nat-
ural History of Carolina, Florida," etc. (two volumes folio), was
published in parts from 1730 to 1748, In this were figured and
described for the first time a number of our mammals,

Pennant^s "Arctic Zoology^' (three volumes quarto, 1784-87)
includes notices of many North American species.

Besides numerous more or less important incidental contribu-
tions made by explorers and travellers, and the descriptions of
new species based on specimens collected by Lewis and Clarke
in the years 1804-6, and by Major Long in 1819-20, and by va-
rious arctic explorers, as Sabine, Scoresby, and Richardson, there
is little to note till we reach the year 1825, when Richard Harlan
published his "Fauna Americana," an octavo volume of about
300 pages, devoted exclusively to North American mammals. It
is now mainly of interest as the first general treatise on the sub-
ject, although for its time a creditable production. He described
127 species as "inhabiting North America north of Mexico,"
Of this number 11 were based on the fossil remains of extinct
species, reducing the number of living species to 116.

This work was soon followed by a much more extended and
elaborate general treatise by John D, Godman, published un-
der the title "American Natural History: Part I., Mastology,"'
an octavo work in three volumes, the first two published in
1826, the third in 1838. The work was illustrated with numer-
ous plates engraved on copper, giving very good figures of nearly

72 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 23,

all the species. For the date of publication the work is one of
high merit and may yet be consulted with much profit.

In 1829 appeared an exceedingly important work on North
American mammals, namely, the first volume of Kichardson's
*' Fauna Boreali-Americana," a quarto of 300 pages and 24
plates, on the mammals of British North America. It is still a
standard work, and is the chief source of information on the
habits and distribution of the mammals of the region north of
the United States.

Among later important works of a general or faunal character
may be mentioned Emmons' "Eeport on tlie Quadrupeds of
Massachusetts," published in 1840; and DeKay^s "Eeporton the
Mammals of the State of New York," a quarto volume with
thirty-three colored plates, published in 1842. This work in-
cludes references to all of the then known species of North
American mammals, and served for many years as a general refer-
ence work, though it failed to take very high rank as an author-
ity. Linsley'slistof the mammals of Connecticut ^ was published
in 1842 ; Thompson published a valuable fully annotated list of
the mammals of Vermont ° in 1853; and Kennicott published
an important paper on the mammals of Illinois in 1857.^

The great work of Audubon and Bachman, entitled "The
Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America," published in three
volumes, royal octavo, 181G-54, with colored plates, marks a
new era in North American mammalogy. About 200 species
are described and 160 figured. The work, however, does not
include either the bats or the marine species. It is devoted
especially to the life histories of the mammals, and deals only to
a limited extent with technical matters. Strange as it may
seem, this forms the latest general work on North American
mammals which treats of the subject from its popular or non-
technical side, although one or two later works treat certain
groups from a general standpoint, dealing with both the popular
and the systematic phases of the subject. Audubon drew most
of the platesof the great work with which his name is associated,
and jointly with Bachman contributed largely to the text; but the
strictly systematic portion is well known to be the work of Bach-
man, the father of systematic mammalogy in America, and, prior
to Baird, the leading authority on the subject. His monographic
revision of the genera Sorex, Scalops, Sciurus, and Lepus, form-

' American Journal of Science and Arts, XLIII., 1842, pp. 345-354.

' Natural History of Vermont, 1853, Mammals, pp. 23-56, and App.
pp. 11-20.

^ Report Commissioner of Patents, Agriculture, 1856, pp. 52-110, pU.
v.-xiv.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 73

ing a series of special papers published 1837-42, were contribu-
tions of the highest importance, and the first careful, systematic
work on any special groups of American mammals by an Amer-
ican writer.

Incidentally important contributions had been made by nu-
merous foreign authors, but it would carry us far beyond our
present scope to consider them in detail.

Baird began to write on North American mammals as early as
1852, his work culminating in 1857 in his great work already
mentioned — a work which gave him pre-eminent standing as an
authority, and which still remains the basis from which present
investigators take tlieir departure.

Baird's volume included only the land mammals, exclusive of
the bats, which, with the seals and Cetacea, were not treated. With
these several groups omitted, Baird recognized about 220 species
-as entitled to a i)lace in the list of North American mammals, —
nearly twice the number given by Harlan in 1825. Thirty-six
others are mentioned as having been attributed to North America,
which he was unable to recognize. A few of these are extra-
limital, but the greater part are either ]iurely nominal, or so
poorly described as to render their recognition impossible.

Baird treated the subject exclusively from the systematic side,
there being nothing in his work relating to the habits of the
species. Classification, and all questions of synonymy and no-
menclature, were treated exhaustively; specific and generic char-
acters were presented in detiil and with great discrimination.
As a technical treatise the work remains a monument to the
industry and sagacity of its talented author, and, considering its
extended scope, has not been excelled by any work, in any coun-
try, on systematic mammalogy. It was illustrated by sixty lith-
ographic plates and nearly forty woodcuts, relating mainly to
cranial, dental, and other structural characters. In 18C0 the
text was reissued, with a large number of additional ])hites, some
of them new, but mos^tly from other volumes of the Pacific
Eailroad and Mexican Boundary Survey reports.

Professor Baird brought to his work not only a mind well
trained in modern methods of research, but he was favored with
resources in the way of material far beyond what had fallen to
the lot of any of his predecessors.

In March, 1853, Congress appropriated $150,000 for the prose-
cution of surveys by the War Department of various routes
across the continent, from the Mississippi Eiver to the Pacific
coast, for the purpose of determining practicable lines for the
construction of railroads. Six well-equipped parties were placed
■at once in the field, and six others were soon added, each accom-

74 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [FEB. 23,

panied by a competent naturalist. Large collections were at the
same time made by other officers of the army stationed at various
posts throughout the distant West, and also by the United
States and ]\[exican Boundary Survey. Although the collections
made by the Boundary Survey were made the subject of a special
report, they formed also a part of the material on which was based
Baird's memorable ''Eighth Volume," as this work is familiarly
known among mammalogists. These collections were, by act of
Congress, all transmitted to the Smithsonian Institution, and
were thus brought together as a single collection, to be elab-
orated, fortunately, by one of the most competent naturalists
America has yet produced.

But the volume under notice was not the sole outcome of these
various Government surveys. Other volumes of the Pacific
Eiilroad Reports contain the special field reports of the various
naturalists of the different routes surveyed, accompanied by nu-
merous plates of new or previously un6gured species. These re-
ports embody the field notes of the collectors, and thus admir-
ably supplement with biographical matter Baird's exhaustive
systematic treatise. Hence to Gambel, Woodhouse, Kennerly,
Cooper, Gibbs, Sackley, Heermann, Newberry, Trowbridge, aiid
Gunnison — names well ingrained in the literature of many de-
partments of North American natural history — we are deeply
indebted for much of our information respecting the habits and
distribution of the mammals of Western ISIorth America.

Since the publication of Professor Baird's great work in 1857,
several monographs have appeared treating of particular orders
or families. In 1864 the Smithsonian Institution published Dr.
Harrison Allen's "Monograph of the Bats of North America,"
an octavo of about ICO pages, illustrated with numerous wood-
cuts. This was the first general systematic treatise on North
American bats since the works of Godman and Harlan, pub-
lished nearly forty years before, and it remains still our stan-
dard work on this group, and the only special treatise on the
North American species of the order. Twenty species are recog-
nized, and manv others referred to as unidentifiable.

In 1866 Dr. Theodore N. Gill published a " Prodrome of a
Monograph of the Pinnipedes," giving a systematic synopsis of
the families, genera, and species of the marine Carnivora — the
seals and their allies.

In 1870 I published a monograph of the family Otariidae, or
Eared Seals,' a paper of 108 pages, with three plates and a num-
ber of woodcuts, giving a detailed account of their osteology and

' Bull. Mus. Co-.up. Zool., II., No. 1, 1870, pp. 1-108, pll. i.-iii.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 75

external characters, supplemented by an extended account of
their habits by Capt. Charles Bryant, formerly a Government
agent at the Far Seal Islands. Liter very elaborate reports by
Mr. Henry W. Elliott, on the habits of the species, have been
published by the Treasury Department of the Government.

In 1874 appeared Capt. C. M. Scammon's work, "The Ma-
rine Mammals of the Northwestern Coast of North America,
described and illustrated, together with an account of the
American Whale-Fishery," a quarto volume of about 325 pages
and 27 lithographic plates. The appearance of this work marked
an era in the history of our marine mammalia, though restricted
to those of the Pacific coast. It covered anew field, and fur-
nished an inexhaustible fund of information, to which we are
still almost wholly limited, as far as the life histories of the spe-
cies are concerned. Cope, Gill, and Dall have contributed also
various important papers on the Cetacea, treating the subject
from the systematic side, and largely relating to the species of
the Pacific coast.

More recently Mr. F. W. True, Curator of Mammals in the
United States National Museum, has entered the field, and, be-
sides numerous minor papers on various species of the Atlantic
coast, has recently published "A Review of the Family Del-
phinidae,'" an octavo memoir of 200 pages, with 47 plates. This
is a monograph of the porpoises and dolphins of the world, and
is a most welcome and able contribution to the subject. Sixty-
two species are described, and nearly all are figured.

J. D. Caton has published numerous papers on our deer, and
in 1877 an octavo volume of nearly 500 pages, with numerous
woodcuts, entitled "The Antelope and Deer of America/' It
deals principally with their habits, affinities, and susceptibility
to domestication, and is in its way an excellent treatise, and the
only one relating exclusively to these animals.

Our most important ruminant, the American bison, was
monograj)hed by myself in 1876 in a quarto memoir of about
260 pages and 12 plates. Mr. Hornaday, in an octavo paper of
nearly 200 pages, with many illustrations, entitled "The Ex-
termination of the American Bison," published in 1889, has ad-
mirably brought the subject down to date.

In 1877 Dr. Coues published his "Fur-Bearing Animals : a
Monograph of North American MustelidjE." It is an octavo of
about 350 pages and 20 iilates, and forms a most important con-
tribution to the literature of North American mammals.

In 1877. also, Dr. Coues and myself published a series of
monographs of the various families of North American rodents,
forming a quarto volume of 1,100 pages, entitled "Monographs

76 TRANSACTION"? OF THE [FEB. 23,

of North American Rodentia." While the two authors shared
the hibor about equally, the joiat authorship implied iu the
title relates merely to the fact that their separate memoirs
are bound together under one general title, the different mono-
graphs being each by a single author. The work consists of
eleven separate and distinct memoirs. In two cases, as in the
monographs of the squirrels and hares, the scope is greater
than is indicated by the general title of the work, all of the
species found in Mexico, South and Central America, being
included, as well as those from North America. An important
feature of this work is the bibliographical appendix, by Gill
and Coues, consisting of about 130 pages, and bringing the
bibliography of North American mammals down to the year
1874, in a very thorough manner, and including most of the
titles down to as late as 1876.^

In 1880 I published an octavo volume of about 800 pages, with
numerous illustrations in the text, entitled '' History of North
American Pinnipeds : a Monograph of the Walruses, Sea- Lions,
Sea-Jiears, and Seals of North America," treating the subject
at length in all its bearings.

In addition to the special works already enumerated, number-
less papers, some of them of great importance, have ajipeared in
Government reports and in the transactions of scientific societies.
Some of these are simply more or less fully annotated faunal
lists ; others are faunal lists, including incidentally much tech-
nical matter ; others are more or less elaborate monographs of
particular genera or families; others still are brief papers de-
scribing new species or recording rare ones. Baird published
practically nothing on mammals after 1859, since wliich time
the most prominent names in the field have been Harrison
Allen, J. A. Allen, Caton, Cooper, Cope, Coues, Dall, Gill,
Kennicott, Mearns, Merriam, Scammon, and True.

Besides these, Alston, of England, has published on the
mammals of Mexico, in Godman and Salvin^s " Biologia Centrali-
Americana" ; De Saussure has also written important papers on
the same subject; while Brown and Ross have published valu-
able memoirs on the mammals of Arctic America.

' The titles of works and papers briefly mentioned in the present
paper will be found there given in full. The intended scope of the
work was to include "(a) all works and papers on mammalia at large
published in North America, (b) all works and papers, wherever pub-
lished, relating to North American mammals, and (c) such general
works or collateral special papers as bear more or less directly upon
the subject." The titles are arranged chronologically under a few
general heads. Though not put forth as absolutely complete, it still
remains the most extended compilation on the subject yet published.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 77

Two orders of our mammals have received very little atten-
tion for nearly tiurty years, and in respect to them we are at
present entirely at sea as regards the number of species, their
relationships, or their correct names. These are the bats,
which have not been monographed since 1864, and the moles
and shrews, which have not been thoroughly revised since 1857.^
We are happy to say, however, in respect to the fo)mer, that Dr.
Harrison Allen has a work in press, under the auspices of the
Smithsonian Institution, relating to the bats^, which will give
us a new and most welcome point of departure for this group.
The outlook regarding the moles and shrews is less encouraging,
there being unforiunatelyno similar work under way treatingof
these groups from the American standpoint. Some years since,
however, Dr. Dobson, of England, undertook a monographic
revision of the Insectivora of the world, but the third and hist
part, which is to treat of the shrews, has not yet appeared. In
1874 this same author published a monograph of the bats of
the world, including, of course. North American. This work
was a boon to workers in this field, and a great help respecting
our own bats, though not altogether satisfactory.

We have now said all that our limited time will permit con-
cerning the progress of North American mammalogy from the
bibliographic standpoint ; its progress from the scientific stand-
point remains to be considered.

Prior to the Government explorations which yielded the
material on which Baird's work was based, we had only the
most superficial knowledge of the mammalogy of North Amer-
ica at large, or beyond the more settled parts of the eastern por-
tion of the United States. No museum, public or private, had
a good series of specimens of even our most common mammals.
Species without number had been described, generally in the
most imperfect manner, from either single or comparatively
few specimens, and the types had been preserved only in rare
instances. Almost nothing was known of either seasonal or
individual variation, nor was the material extant for the s-tudy
of either of these very important phases of the subject. Even
Professor Baird, in working up his comparatively abundant
material from the West, found himself often baffled in his
comparisons by the absence of specimens from the East. Pro-

' In 1877 Coues published an important preliminary paper on the
North American In.«ectivora, entitled "Precursory Notes on American
Insectivorous Mammals, with Descriptions of New Species " (Bull.
U. S. Geo). Surv., III., 1877, pp. 631-653). He intended to follow this
with an elaborate monograph of the group, which, however, unfortu
nately was never completed.

78 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 23,

fessor Biiird was thus confronted at the beginning of his work
with a chaos of names and meagre descriptions, the legacy of
his predecessors. Even not a few of the species of Audubon
and Bachman were based on specimens from unknown local-
ities, not always correctly supposed to be North American.
Leconte, DeKay, Say, Ord, Ratinesque, and Harlan, and various
foreign authors, had each contributed to the list of nominal
species, many of which will forever remain undeterminable, while
others have been duly relegated to the limbos of synonymy.
The work of separating the chaff from the wheat, the false from
the true, was a perplexing task, an intricate riddle, which Baird
attacked with wonderful acumen and success, leaving a com-
paratively smooth and easy ])ath for his successors.

This was, however, the period of excessive subdivision, the
smallest recognizable differences serving as the basis of specific
separation. Baird, as was natural, influenced by the methods
of his time, contributed his share to the list of synonyms ; yet,
considering the inadequateness of his material, his lapses were
few, and more than atoned for by the accuracy and detail of his
descriptions. If he failed to substantiate tangible differences
between closely allied forms, it was because they did not exist,
not from any lack of care in his work. Sometimes features of
seasonal or individual variation were mistaken for specific dif-
ference, but, as a rule, any forms recognized by Baird as species
will bear the closest scrutiny, and are rarely found to be without
some basis in nature — that is, if not ^' good species,'' they will be
found to be what we now call geographical forms, or "subspecies."

The history of North American mammalogy and the history
of North American ornithology run in closely parallel lines, the
prominent workers being practically the same in each. In both
of these departments there have been periods of excessive split-
ting, followed by undue lumping. On a former occasion I have
referred at length to "the oscillations of the ornithological pen-
dulum" during the last thirty years. ^ In mammals, as in birds,
a period of "lumping "set in about 1870, following along period
during which the tendency had been to excessive subdivision,
and extending into the present decade. The period from 1870
to 1880 was thus not only a lumping period, but a transition
period, and also one of unequalled activity. Work was carried
on also from a basis in some respects the exact reverse from that
of the immediately preceding epoch. While the outcome was on
the whole a marked advance on what had preceded, it is ob-
viously open to material revision as seen from the standpoint of

' The Auk, Vol. VII., Jan., 1890, pp. 1-9.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 79

to-day. A third period, differing much from either of the two
preceding, has now opened ; its culmination and final results
cannot as yet be foreseen.

During the Bairdian period of North American mammalogy,
the discovery of new forms was the paramount incentive to in-
Testigation. The method of study was hence intensely analytic ;
differences, rather than resemblances, filled the mind of the in-
vestigator. At this period the subject of variation under cli-
matic influences, the evolution of species by environment, had
attracted little attention. But the facts of evolution were being
minutely recorded ; a harvest was being reaped which was to
form the basis of important generalizations, as tlien unsuspected
even by the most industrious of the reapers. But they did their
work well, and it is not to their discredit that they failed to see
at first some of the fundamental principles of the evolution of
life under the influences of environment. We have always first
to gather our facts before we can generalize. Professor Baird
himself, however, was the first to perceive and formulate some
of the fundamental laws of geographical variation, as regards
both North American birds and mammals, in the study of which,
be it said to the credit of American naturalists, such princi-
ples were first recognized and established. Baird early perceived
that, as a rule, individuals of the same species decreased in size
from the north southward ; that the animals from the arid plains
were paler in color than their nearest relatives of the wooded
region to the eastward; and that over the heavy rainfall belt of
the Northwest they assumed a depth of coloring met with no-
where else on the continent. He also recognized that, in some
instances, the size of peripheral parts, especially in birds, in-
creased in size from the north southward, while the general size ef
the individual decreased. Later it was also noticed that, as a rule,
individuals of the same species became brighter colored at the
southward as compared with their northern relatives — that black
bars and streaks were broadened at the expense of the interven-
ing lighter spaces ; that birds with metallic tints became more
iridescent, and that the duller colors, of both birds and mammals,
became deepened and intensified.^

In subsequent years, as material increased and large series of
specimens of the same species and from the same locality were
brought together, it was found that the range of purely individ-
ual variation, in respect to every feature, vvas far greater than
had previously been suspected. This, of course, seemed to in-
Talidate certain characters on which species had previously often

' See Allen," Mammals and Winter Birdsof East Florida," Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zoo)., II., No. 3, 1871.

80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [FEB. 23,

been based. Again, tlie increase of material from new localities
showed that certain forms described as species gradually varied
in the direction of other species, through specimens from inter-
mediate points of the common habitat. In other words, we be-
gan to be troubled with a lot of specimens that were variously
intermediate between two or more previously supposed wholly
distinct species. This occurred not merely in a few isolated
cases, but frequently over most of the continent. Under these
circumstances, and in the light already thrown upon the general
subject, It was natural that many species which had been held for
years in good standing — or while known from only a few speci-
mens — should be reduced either to pure synonyms or to the rank
of geographical forms or subspecies. It was further natural that
in some instances it should be presumed, on general grounds^
that certain of the previously recognized species were either
purely nominal or else only local forms, even where the evidence
was far from conclusive. For a time, under the new order of
things, it was not strange that undue lumping should result,
as later researches have proved was the case.

" Intermediates" were at first explained on the ground of hy-
brid ity, and it was customary for a time to treat the few refractory
specimens then known as hybrids. But the hybrids soon became
troublesomely numerous ; furthermore, it was noticed that over
certain areas, and along certain geographical lines, the varia-
tions were in general of a similar character. As already said,
this gave rise to the recognition of certain laws of geographical
variation. A crisis resulted respecting methods of treatment,
culminating about 1870. Down to about this date a collec-
tion of individuals known as a species was, theoretically at least,
a distinct and definable group. Varieties, in a geographical
sense, were rarely recognized, and "subspecies^' was an almost
unknown term. Many species to which we had long pinned our
faith were turning out badly ; instead of being stable and well
marked, they were found to intergrade with others from which
they were supposed to be distinct. This, of course, was always
in the case of closely allied species ; between many other species
no such intergradation was apparent. Thus we had, as it
were, two kinds of species, some which intergraded and some
which did not intergrade. How were such diverse elements to
be treated ? This was the question of the hour. Should these
strongly marked geographical forms be lumped together under
a common specific name and thus wholly ignored in nomencla-
ture, or should we continue to recognize under binomial names
all strongly marked forms characterizing particular physio-
graphic areas — in other words, forms having approximately defin-

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 81

able habitats — although known to run into something else; or was
there a still better way of expressing such important biologic
facts ? Here were evidently recognizable stages in the process of
erolution by environment. How were they to be recognized so as
to be made use of in philosophical biology ; in what way could
they be chronicled in descriptive biology ? That many of these
intergrading forms possessed noteworthy differences is evident
from the fact that they formerly held the rank of unquestioned
species.

For a time a wavering course was followed, some writers lump-
ing as one species all forms that seemed to intergrade, while
others continued to recognize all of the more prominent phases
as species. Soon after it became the fashion to distinguish them
as varieties, under what may be termed a qualified quadrinomial
system of nomenclature. Thus our Eastern red squirrel, or
chickaree, was called Scinriis liudsonius; its Kocky Mountain
representative, or Fremont's chickaree, became Sciurus huclso-
nius, vai". fremonti; another Rocky Mountain form, known as
Richardson's chickaree, became Sciurns hudsonius, var. rich-
ardsoni; a Northwest coast form, known as Douglass' chickaree,
became Sciurus Jiudsoniua, var. douglassi ; and so on in all sim-
ilar cases. This proved a cumbersome method, and soon the
term ''var." was dropped, resulting in a trinomial name, ^Dure
and simple, for the designation of subspecies. This in reality is
the binomial system of Linne in spirit, modified slightly in the-
letter to fit what was an ideal system of nomenclature at the
time of its inception, to the requirements of modern biology.
Hence American mammalogists adojited, in common with orni-
thologists, trinomial designations for nascent species, reserving
the binomial distinctively for species in full standing. This
system became generally current about 1883.

The several geographic, intergrading forms of a wide-rang-
ing species often differ more from each other in their extreme
phases than do, in other cases, perfectly distinct species. Hence,
through the use of trinomials, two important things are accom-
plished: first, a means of distinguishing two kinds of relation-
ship among congeneric forms, the use of a binomial name in-
dicating entire distinctness, without regard to kind or degree
of difference, Avhile tlie use of a trinomial implies known in-
tergradation, notwithstanding the very wide difference which
frequently exists between the extreme phases of a group of inter-
grading or conspecific forms ; secondly, provision for a conve-
nient and tangible way of giving expression, by means of a definite
formula, to some of the most suggestive facts in the evolution
of life. It is not claimed that this is a perfect system of nomen-

•82 TRANSACTIOKS OF THE [fEB. 23,

clature, but it is the best and most convenient at present avail-
able. It has its objections, which, theoretically, seem insuper-
able, but which, in practice, prove insignificant.

At first, under this method, lumping flourished to a remark-
able degree. Forms that were known to intergrade were not
only reduced to subspecies, but not infrequently such reduc-
tions were made on theoretical grounds. Certain forms. Judg-
ing from what had been established as occurring in allied groups,
and in accordance with what might be presumed to occur as
the result of certain laws of geographical variation, were pre-
sumptively merged with others, sometimes correctly, but often
improperly.

It was during this phase of affairs that the " Monographs of
North American Kodentia" appeared, as also Coues'^' Fur-
Bearing Animals'' and my '' North American Pinnipeds.''
It was also from this point of view that True prepared his
"Check-list of North American Mammals," published in 1884.
Incidentally both Coues and myself did some revisionary work
in other groups, on nearly the same lines.

To throw into strong contrast the work of the three leading
periods in the recent history of North American mammalogy,
we will compare briefly two or three groups as left by Baird in
1857, by Coues and Allen in 1877, and as they appear from the
standpoint of to-day. For this purpose we will select the
MuridaB, or the field rats and mice ; the Saccomyidae, or the
pouched rats and mice ; the Leporidre, or the hares ; and the
.Sciuridfe, or the squirrels, spermophiles, and marmots.

In 1857 Baird recognized forty-eight species of field rats and
•mice; of these Coues reduced eighteen to synonyms and three
■others to subspecies. There has been no recent revision of the
group as a whole, nor in fact of any of the genera. An entirely
new genus, however, of meadowmice {Phenacomys), with four
species, has been recently described by Dr. Merriam/ of which
not a single specimen had been recognized by naturalists three
years ago, although the genus is now known to range across
North America from British Columbia to Labrador, and south-
ward along the Rocky Mountains into the United States. Six
different writers have described new species of the genus Hes-
peromr/s, or white-footed mice, three of them being remark-
ably unlike anything previously known. Several of Baird's
species have also been revived as perfectly tenable subspecies.
Other genera of this large family present a similar history.
In short, not less than thirty species and subspecies have been

1 " North American Fauna," No. 2, Oct., 1889, pp. 27-35, pll. ii.-vii.

189].] :N"EW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 83

added during the last six years, nearly doubling the number re-
cognized in 1877.

Of the squirrels, Baird admitted thirty-nine species — an
enormous reduction, by the way, from the number recognized
by Audubon and Bachman. In 1877 I confirmed Baird's pre-
vious reductions, and still further reduced the number to thirty-
three species and subspecies, adding, however, eight to those
recognized by Baird. Since 1877 a large number of species
and subspecies has been added, mainly among the ground squir-
rels and spermophiles. These additions are based ou almost
wholly new materials, and include species as distinct from their
nearest allies as any previously known. That is, they are not
the result of a new way of looking at things, but are actual dis-
coveries of forms not at all closely related to anything known
before.

Of the Saccomyidte, Baird in 1857 recognized nine species;
Cones, in 1877, admitted the same number. This group dur-
ing the last four years has been thoroughly revolutionized,
mainly by Dr. Merriam.^ The names of several of the old
species have been shown to have been strangely misapplied; one
new genus and a new subgenus, and some twenty or more new
species, have been added, besides numerous subspecies. Among
the new forms are some strikingly different from any known to
either Baird or Coues, while others differ in only comparatively
slight particulars. These animals are peculiar to the arid plains
and deserts of the West; are nocturnal and somewhat subterranean
in their habits, and seem, moreover, especially susceptible^to the
influence of conditions of environment. Owing to their peculiar
habits, and to the fact that the area they inhabit has been, till
lately, little explored, very few specimens were extant in collec-
tions up to a very recent date.

Of the Leporidae, or hares, Baird in 1857 was able to recognize
but thirteen species as ^orth American. All but one of these
were admitted by me in 1877 and two others were added. Within
the last year five others have been recognized, three of which are
very distinct from any previously known, while two are old ones
revived as subspecies.

To what, then, is all this change due ? To several very ob-
vious causes. First, to a vast increase of material; second, to its
greatly improved quality; third, to more thorough and intelli-
gent work in the field, conducted on a tenfold greater scale
than ever before. Thousands of specimens are taken now where
formerly only a few scores were obtained. Collecting and all

1 " North American Fauna," No. 1, Oct., 1889; ibid., No. S, Sept., 1890,
pp. 71-75; and ibid., No. 4, Oct., 1890, pp. 41-49.

84 . TRANSACTIONS OF THE [FEB. 23,

that relates to field work in mammals has been brought to au
almost ideal state of proficiency. And all this is due, primarily,
to the efforts and example of one man — Dr. C. Hart Merriam,
formerly of Locust Grove, Lewis County, New York, now
Chief of the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy of the
United States Department of Agriculture. He, realizing the
importance of Avell-prepared skins, in large series from as many
localities as possible, and of accurate data as to time and place
of capture, and of measurements taken from the specimen before
skinning, began, many years since, to form a collection for his
own cabinet, which eventually became one of the most extensive
and valuable in the country. An expert himself in all that
relates to the capture and preservation of specimens, he trained
collectors and sent them to remote parts of the country, and soon
gathered a rich harvest, replete with novelties, some of them
of startling character, so widely did they differ from any-
thing previously known. Later, under the auspices of the
Department of Agriculture, he has pushed the work with
still greater activity, resulting in the recent establishment of
what practically amounts to the inception of a Biological Sur-
vey, on a grand scale, of the United States, which, in the in-
terest of science and in the economic interests of the country, it
is to be hoped will be long liberally sustained.

The number of skilled collectors is rapidly increasing, with
the result that our leading museums are now receiving much
more and far better material than was ever before available for
study. To contrast once more the old with the new, it may be
stated that more specimens of the smaller mammals of North
America were collected during the year 1890 than all that Pro-
fessor Baird had at his command in 1857 for the preparation of
his great work on North American mammals — specimens, too,
incomparably better as regards their quality and utility for sci-
entific investigation.

"While, ten or twelve years ago, it was commonly supposed
that comparatively little remained to be learned respecting the
mammals of North America, beyond a few details regarding
their distribution and habits, we are now little less than awed by
the evident extent of our ignorance of the subject, as shown by^
the astonishing discoveries of the last four or five years, and
recognize the obvious necessity of a careful revision of the whole
field.

From this point the paper was continued extemporaneously,
and the speaker, by means of specimens for illustration, showed
the difference in the character of the material formerly avail-

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 85

able for study and that now employed. He also illustrated the
wide range of seasonal variation in color occurring among the
ground and tree squirrels of the genera Tamias and Sciurus ;
and exhibited and described a number of the more remarkable
forms of mammalian life recently discovered in various parts of
North America.

March 2d, 1891.

Eegular Busin"ess Meetin'g.

Yice-Presidext Prof. Allen- in the chair.

About thirty persons present.

The minutes of the meetings of February 3d and 23d were
read and approved.

The following recommendations of the Council (February
6th and 26th) were approved, and the Fellows and Members
duly elected :

I. The election of

L. H. Jacoby,

EiiORY McCLiifTOCK, and

John" Tatlock, Jr., as Fellows.

II. The election of

George H. English as Resident Member.

III. The formation of a Section of Archeology.

In conformity with the notice for the evening, Prof. Allen"
announced that the Section of Astronomy would be temporarily
organized. Prof. Allen" retired, and Prof. Eees was chosen
provisional chairman of the Section, with Mr. Harold Jacoby
as secretary. On motion, the chairman was requested to ap-
point a committee of three to perfect the organization and lay
out the work of the Section.

The following papers were read :

86 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAR. 2,

ON THE CALCULATION OF STAR-PLACES FOR ZENITH TELESCOPE

OBSERVATIONS.

BY HAROLD JACOBY.

(Abstract.)

Ill determining the latitude from zenith telescope observations
it is not necessary to compute the *' reduction from mean to
apparent place '' of every star observed. For the stars are ob-
served in pairs; and to obtain the latitude we need to know
the mean of the apparent declinations of the two stars of any
pair. It follows, therefore, that we only require the mean of
the corresponding reductions for the two stars.' This mean
can be arrived at by a single computation, which may be effected
nearly as quickly as the reduction of either star could be sepa-
rately computed.

Let
a^, d^, be the right ascension and declination of the Southern

Star,
a„, 6„, the same quantities for the Northern Star,
and put:

t = i (a^ - «i) C = i (-52 — 5i)
a,, = I (as 4- ^i) 5o = 5 {Si + 8i)

The correction which must be added to the latitude, computed
simply with the mean declinations for the beginning of the year,
is then given by the following equations: '

Jq) = ix + t).iq + g cos ((r + rto) cos t + limo cos (iJ + ao + M) cos ?
k = cot q) tan ?
X = cos q) cos C
m» = sin (5ocos t

Jc, X, and ?»„ are auxiliary quantities, having constant values for
any particular pair of stars. The other letters have their usual
significance (see American Ephemeris), and //, is the mean of the
proper motions of the two stars in declination.

In applying this method it will be expedient to tabulate x, h,
and log m^ (which are always positive) for the latitude of the ob
serving station. The formation of such a table requires but a
very few minutes, as will be seen from the following example:

^ See also a paper by Prof. T. H. Saflford, Pro. Am, Ac. Arts and
Sciences, 1875, Vol. XL, p. 167.

' For a demonstration of these formulae, see Astronomical Journal,
No. 238. -.

1891.]

NEW YOKE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

87

Let the given quantities be:

q> = 40° 45', or the latitude of Columbia College.
Date = 1886, November 2d, Washington, mean midnight.

or^ = 2''28'".0 ^2 = 60' 45' «o =
a, = S" 10- -0 (5i = 20° 35'

The tables referred to above are, for the latitude 40° 45'

For X and fc 1

s

X 1 A;

0°

+ 0.758

+ 0.00

5

0.755

0.10

10

0.746

0.20

15

0.732

0.31

20

0.712

0.42

25

+ 0.687 54 1

For log Too

t

5o = 40°40'

40' 45'

40° 50'

9.8155
9.8153
9.8151

5
10

9.8140
9.8138
9.8136

9.8148
9.8146
9.8144

From the American Ephemeris :

G = 2" 7 .9 H= 3" 7.3 i = 6".17
log gr= 1.1944 log li = 1.2899
We have, then:

a, = 2" 19'".0, i = + 9 .0, 5o = 40' 40', ? = 20' 5'

and therefore, from the above little tables, for this pair of stars:

X = 0.712 k = 0.42 log nu,= 9.8136
so that

kt = + d .8 ao + kt = 2''22"'.8

g cos {G + oTo) cos t = + 6". 18
hiiia cos {H + a^ + kt) cos ? = + 1.55

ix = + 4.39

Acp

+ 12.12

A calculation of the two stars separately gives for the respec-
tive reductions

10".46 and 13".79

whose mean is Vl'W'i, agreeing exactly with the result found
above.

AN" INDEX TO " COPERNICUS." AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

OF ASTRONOMY.

BY .JOHN TATLOCK, JR., M.A.

Introduction.

In 1881 Dr. Ralph Copeland and Dr. J. L. E. Dreyer com-
menced the publication of an astronomical journal called

^8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAR. 2,

TJrania. After six numbers had been issued, becoming aware
of the existence of an astrological journal of the same name, the
editors changed the appellation of their publication to Coperni-
cus, under which name three complete volumes were published,
the last number of the journal being dated in June, 1884. The
discontinuance of the publication of Copernicus was a source of
great regret to astronomers, for it occupied a unique position
among the journals of its class — a position which, to a very-
large extent, has never been occupied b}^ any other publication.

It is with a view of furnishing a means of reference to the
many valuable papers of permanent interest contained in Coper-
nicus that the following index has been compiled. It is hoped
that it will be found to be a worthy contribution to astronomical
bibliography.

The index is arranged in two parts : the first contains a list
of contributors to the journal, with the titles of their papers or
articles in chronological order ; the second part contains the
contents of the journal, arranged under the various general
subjects to which the papers respectively belong.

The Roman numerals refer to the volumes, the Araljic to the
pages.

The critic will note various departures from the established
rules which are supposed to govern the formation of a biblio-
graphical index. In extenuation it maybe said that no attempt
has been made to follow closely the usual forms and methods,
but that the object has been to present the material in the
most available form.

PART I.

Names of authors and contributors, with the titles of their papers,
articles, and notes.

Backlund, O.— On the Parallax of the Star Bradley, 3077. II., 201.

Prof. Gylden's Neue Untersuchungen iiber die Theorie der Be-

wegung der Himmelskorper. II., 203.
Bakhuyzen, H. G. v. d. S. — Observations of Brooks' Comet (Comet of

1812), September 5th and 8th, 1883. III., 181.
Ball, R. S. — Researches on the Annual Parallax of the Star Groom-
bridge, 1618. I., 16.

Determination of the Annual Parallax of 6 Cygni B = 2 2486,

II., 159.
BoRGEN, C. — Hiilfstafeln zur Erleichterung der Berechnung von Stern-
bedeckungen durch den Mond. I., 8.

Corrections to Dr. Borgen's paper on Occultations [Ed.]. I., 49.

Bredechin, Th.— Sur les Queues des Cometes. I., 99.

Recherches sur les Cometes b et c 1881. II., 1.

Note supplementaire sur les Cometes b et c (III, et IV.) 1881.

II., 56.
Sur la Comete 1882 I. (Wells). III. , 41 .

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 89

Bredechin, Th. — Recherches sur la Comete de 1882 II. III., 81.

Note sur la Queue du Premier Type de la Comete 1882 II. III.,

117.
Quelques Mots sur les Cometes; Reponse a M. Schwedoflf. II.,

121.
Burton, C. E.— Recent Measures of Double Stars. I., 54.

[Review of Schiaparelli's paper, " Osservazioni astronomiche del

pianeta Marte." I., 239.]
Note on the Aspect of Mars in 1881-1882. II., 91.

Common, A. A. — New Nebulae. I., 50.

COPELAND, Ralph. — A New Planetary Nebula. I., 2.

Observations of the Spectrum of Comet 1880 f (Pechiile) at Dun

Echt. I., 40.

Elements of Comet a 1881. I., 120.

The Comet of 1733. I., 164.

Extracts from Two Letters from South America. III., 66.

Notes on a recent Visit to some North American Observatories.

III., 133.

An Account of some recent Astronomical Experiments at high

elevations in the Andes III., 193.

The Late Prof. Klinkerfues (a Biographical and Obituary Notice).

III., 239.

and LOHSE. — Observations of the Spectrum of Comet 1880 d (Hart-
wig). I., 1.

Observations of Comets made at Dun Echt Observatory. I., 4.

Observations of Comet a 1881 (Swift). I., 122.

Observations of Comets c and e 1881. I., 236.

Observations of Comets 1881 6, /, and g. II., 42.

Spectroscopic and other Observations of Schmidt's Nova Cygni

made at Dun Echt Observatory. II., 101.
-Spectroscopic Observations of Comets III. and IV. 1881, Comet

I. 1882, and the Great Comet of 1882. II., 225.
— Observations of Brooks' Comet (Comet of 1812). III., 131.

Denning, W. F.— Meteor Streams. I., 194.

DOBERCK, W. — On X Virginis considered as a Revolving Double Star.
I., 143.

Markree Observations of Red Stars. I., 208.

The Transit of Venus observed at Markree Observatory. III., 19.

Dreyer, J. L. E. — Comparison Stars. A Suggestion to Astronomers.
I., 49.

The Instruments in the Old Observatory at Peking. I., 134.

Note on the Nebula near Merope. I., 156.

Meridian Observations of Comet h 1881. I., 163.

Meridian Observations of Comet c 1881 (Schaeberle). I., 181.

Historical Note concerning the Discovery of Neptune. II., 03.

[Notes on Wagner's paper " Ueber ein altes Manuscript der Pul-

kowaer Sternwarte." See Wagner.] II., 129.

A New Determination of the Constant of Precession. II., 135.

-Observation of the Transit of Venus, 1882, December 6, at the

Armagh Observatory. III., 18
— Note on the Accuracy of Lalande's Right Ascensions. III., 103.
— On the Multiple Tail of the Great Comet of 1744. III., 104.
— Further Note on the Comet of 1744. III., 184.

90 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAR. 2,

Editors, The. — A Record of the Progress of Astronomy during the
Year 1880. I., 56.

Comet 6 1881. I., 141.

Photograph of the Nebula in Orion. I., 160.

Comet b 1881. I., 161.

Comet c 1881. I., 163.

Obituary Notices. [Bruhns and Powalky] I., 165. [Robinson]

II., 64.
On the Telegraphic Transmission of Astronomical Data. I., 179.

[Comet c 1881, and Encke's Comet.] I., 186.

The Meeting of the " Astronomische Gesellscbaft " at Strass

burg, September 22-24, 1881. I., 200.

[Comet Telegrams.] I., 206.

Denning's Comet/ 1881. I., 212.

A New Variable Star. I., 238, and II., 157.

Comet Sf 1881. I., 238.

The Spectrum of the Nebula in Orion photographed. II., 68.

A Few Addenda to Admiral Smyth's "Cycle." II., 93.

Comet Wells 1882. II., 94.

Prize Question of the Royal Danish Society of Science. III., 51.

-Recent Literature [Reviews of current astronomical papers]. I.

139, 183, 196, 216, 239. II., 20, 44, 65, 97, 156. III., 21, 35, 51, 79,

111, 127, 145, 185, 248.
Engelhardt, B. von. — Beobachtungen des Cometen g 1881 [Swift].

II., 19.

Beobachtungen des Cometen Wells. II., 95.

ExGLAXD, .r.— Observation of the Transit of Venus, December 6, 1882,

at the Observatory of Queen's College, Cork. III., 75.

Frxsz, J.— [Observations of Comet g 1881.] I., 239.

Galle, J. G. — Ueber die erste Auffindung des Planeten Neptun. II.,
96. (See Dreyer, Hist. Note, Neptune.)

HoLDEX, E. S.— List of Red Stars, observed at the Washburn Observa-
tory, University of Wisconsin, Madison. I., 176.

Kapteyn, J. C. — Ueber das Kepler'sche Problem. III., 25.

Ueber eine Methode die Polhohe moglichst frei von systemati-

schen Fehlern zu bestimmen. III., 147.
Klinkerfues, W. — Ueber die Auflosung der Lambert'schen Gleichung
fiir parabolische Bewegung. I., 5.

Beobachtungen des Cometen b 1881, auf der Kon. Sternwarte

zu Gottingen. I., 178.

Ueber das Zodiakallicht. II., 91.

-Ueber den zweiten Differentialquotienten der wahren Anomalie.

II., 163.
KOBOLD, H. — Beobachtungen Kleiner Planeten am Reichenbach'schen

Meridiankreise zu Gottingen. I., 94.

Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Rotationselemente Jupiters. I., 123.

Dis Positionsringmikrometer. I., 187.

Eine neue Behandlung des Problems der Drei Korper. II., 69.

Beobachtungen von Sonnenflecken am Astrophysicalischen Ob-

servatorium zu O'Gyalla. II., 89, 131, 196.
Beobachtung der partiellen Sonnenfinsterniss zu O'Gyalla, 1882,.

Mai 16. III., 76.

1891.] NF.-W YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 91

LOHSE, J. G. — Meridian Observations of Comet b 1881. I., 177.

Meridian Observations of Comet c 1881 (Schaeberle). I., 182. _

Observations of Encke's Comet. I., 182. ~'-

[Discovery of a Variable Star; Comet e (Barnard); Notices of.] I.,

206.

Observation of the Transit of Venus, 1882, December 6, at Dun

Echt Observatory. III., 129.
-Spectroscopic Observations of Comet 1883 I. (made at Dun Echt

Observatory with the Grubb Spectroscope). III., 130.

Oppexheim, H. — Elemente und Ephemeride des Cometen a 1881. I.,
121.

Elemente und Ephemeride des Cometen e 1881 (Barnard). I.,

321.
-Elements of Comet g 1881 (Swift). II., 20.

OuDEM.\xs, J. A. C— Reply to the Remarks of Dr. Copeland on my
Calculation of the Place of the Comet of 1733 (this Journal, p.
165). 1., 207.

Perry. S. J.— The Chromosphere in 1880. I., 97.

The Chromosphere in 1881. II., 62.

The Government Expedition to Madagascar to observe the Tran-
sit of Venus, on December 6, 1882. III., 67.

The Chromosphere in 1882. III., 102.

-The Chromosphere in 1883. III., 232.

Peters, C. H. F. — Positions of Nebulee, Series I. I., 51.

Positions of Nebulae, Series II. II., 54.

Pickerixg, E. C— Remarkable Star Spectrum; New Planetary Nebula.

I., 242.
Pltjmmer. W. E.— On the Theory of the Sidereal System proposed by
Mr. Maxwell Hall. II., 45.
On the Orbit of Denning's Comet (1881 V.). III., 1.

Radau, R. — Remarques concernant le Probleme de Kepler. III., 132.

[RODGERS, John.]— The U. S. Naval Observatory during the Year end-
ing October 31, 1880. I., 48.

RossE, The Earl of.— Determinations of the Lunar Radiant Heat dur-
ing the Progress of an Eclipse. I., 22.

Schjellerup, H. C. F. C— Recherches sur 1' Astronomie des Anciens.
I., 25, 41, 223.

Supplement aux Tables ecliptiques de P. A. Hansen. I., 155.

On some hitherto Unknown Observations of a supposed Satel-
lite of Venus II., 164.
Christian Mayer's Observations of Telescopic Stars, arranged ac-

cording to Cf^nstellations.^ III., 57.
SCHULHOF, L.— Elements et Ephemeride de la Comete Denning. I.,

222.
ScHWEDOFF, Thec— Sur les Configurations des Cometes. III., IVo.

Sur la Queue Multiple de la Comete de 1744. III. , 182.

Stone, O.— On the Determination of the Error and Rate of a Clock by
the Method of Least Squares. I., 116.
Note on the Computation of Special Perturbations. II., 120.

Tacchini, P.— Comet (/ 1881. L, 239. .,^,

Osservazioni della Cometa Wells fatte al Osservatono del CoK

legio Romano. II., 96.

92 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAR. 2,

Tacchlni, p. — Observations of Brooks' Comet (Comet of 1812). III.,
131.

Terby, F. — Observations des Comefces b and c 1881, faites a Louvain.
II.. 60.

Thiele, T. N. — On some Interpolation Formulae for Double Stars. II.,
25.

Todd, D. P. — On the Solar Parallax as derived from the American Pho-
tographs of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December 8-9. I., 167.

A Comparison of LeVerrier's Tables of Uranus and Neptune with

those by Newcomb of the same Planets. III., 283.

Ventosa, V. — Observations meridiennes et Orbite de la Comete b 1881.
I., 211.

Wagner, A. — Ueber ein altes Manuscript der Pulkowaer Sternwarte-

II., 123.
Weiler, a. — Bemerkung zu Dr. H. Kobold's Aufsatz ueber das Prob,
lem der Drei Korper. II., 130. See Kobold.

• -Ueber den z weiten Differentialquotienten von x nach der Wahren

Anomalie genommen. III., 16.
TVright, a. W.— The Polarization of Light from Comet b 1881. I., 157.

Polari.scopic Observations of Comet c 1881. I., 214.

Wylie, a. — Jottings on the Science of the Chinese. II., 169.

1891.]

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

93

PART II.

List of general subjects, under which are arranged the titles of the
several papers, etc.:

1. Astronomy, Cometary. the solar system.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

" History of .
" Meteoric.
" Practical.
" Sidereal.
" Spherical.
" Theoretical.
Astronomical Bibliography.
" Biography,

10. The Sun.

11. The Moon.

12. Venus.

13. Mars.

14. Jupiter.

15. Neptune.

16. The Minor Planets.

THE SIDEREAL SYSTEM.

17.
18.
19.
20.

The NebuljB.
Stars, Double,

" Red.

" Variable.

21. Stellar Parallax.

22. " Spectroscopy.

23. Miscellaneous Subjects

I. COMETARY ASTRONOMY.

Sur les Queues des Cometes. Par Th. Bredichin. I., 99.
Sur les Configurations des Cometes, par Theodore Schwedoff. III., 113.
Quelques Mots sur les Cometes : Reponse a M. Schwedoff. Par Th. Bredi-
chin. III., 121.
Comet of 1733. I., 164. (Remarks on the probable identity of this
comet with the comet of 1807 and comet b 1881, the conclusion being
that they are not identical. — R. C.)

Reply to the Remarks of Dr. Copeland on my Calculation of the

Place of the. By J. A, C. Oudemans. I., '207.
Comet of 1744, On the Multiple Tail of the Great. By J. L. E. Dreyer.
III., 104.

Sur la Queue Multiple de la. Par Theodore Schwedoff. III., 182,

Further Note on the. J. L. E. D. III., 184.

Comet of 1812 (Brooks', 1883), Observations of. III., 131.
Comet 1880 d (Hartwig), Observations of the Spectrum of. I., 1.

Observations of. I., 4.

Comet Faye (1880), Observations of. I., 4.

Comet Schaeberle (1880), Observations of, I., 4.

Comet 1880 /'(Pechule), Observation of the Spectrum of. I., 40.

Comet Encke, Observations of (in 1881). I., 182 and 186.

Comet a 1881 (Swift), Elements and Ephemeris of. I., 120, 121.

Observations of . I., 122.

Comet b 1881, Elements. Ephemeris, and Observations of . I., 141, 161,
163. 177, 211 ; II., 42, 60.

The Polarization of Light from. By Arthur W. Wright. I., 157.

Observations of the Spectrum of. I., 162.

Cometes 5 et c 1881, Recherches sur les. Par Th. Bredichin. II., 1.
Note supplementaire sur les. Par Th. Bredichin. II., 56.

94 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [mAR. 2,

Comet c 1881 (Schaebei'le), Elements, Ephemeris, and Observations of.

I., 163, 181, 182, 186; II., 60.

Polaiiscopic Observations of. By Arthur W. Wright. I., 214.

Comet e 1881 (Barnard), Elements, Ephemeris, and Observations of. I.,

206, 221, 237.
Comet/ 1881 (Denning), Elements, Ephemeris, and Observations of. I.,

212, 222 ; II., 42.

On the Orbit of. By William E. Plummer. III., 1.

Comet gf 1881 (Swift), Elements, Ephemeris, and Observations of. I.,

238 ; II., 19, 20, 42.
Comets III. and IV. 1881, Comet I. 1882. and the Great Comet of 1882,

Spectroscopic Observations of. By Ralph Copeland and J. G. Lohse.

II., 225.
Comet Wells, 1883, Elements and Observations of. II., 94, 95, 96.

The Spectrum of. II., 157.

Comete 1882 I. (Wells), Sur la. Par Th. Bredichin. III., 41.
Comete de 1882 II., Recherches sur la. Par Th. Bredichin. III., 81.
Comet 1883 I., Spectroscopic Observations of. III., 130.

11. HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY.

Observatory at Peking, The Instruments in the Old. By J. L. E.

Dreyer. I., 134.
Recherches sur I'Astronomie des Anciens, Par H. C. F. C. Schjellerup,
I. Sur le Chronometre Celeste d'Hipparque. I., 25.

Ibid. II. On the Total Solar Eclipses observed in China in the

Years B.C. 708, B.C. 600. and B.C. 548. I., 41.
-Ibid. III. Sur les Conjonctions d'Etoiles avec la Lune rappor-

tees par Ptolemee. I., 223.
Record of the Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1880. By the
Editors. I., 56. A detailed account of the principal investigations
made and results published, during the year, in the various de-
partments of Astronomy.

III. METEORIC ASTRONOMY.

Meteor Streams, by W. F. Denning. I., 194. A list and description of
"a few of the most active meteor showers observed at Bristol
since 1876."

Ueber das Zodiakallicht. Von Prof. W. Klinkerfues. II., 91.

IV. PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY.

On the Determination of the Error and Rate of a Clock by the Method
of Least Squares. By Ormond Stone. I., 116. The author applies
the formulae which he develops to a discussion of the rates of the
Leiden Clock, Hohwii No. 17, as given by Kaiser in Ast. Nach., vol.
63, pp. 215-220.

Positionsringmikrometer, Das. Von Dr. H. Kobold. I., 187.

V. SIDEREAL ASTRONOMY.

Comparison Stars. A Suggestion to Astronomers (J. L. E. Dreyer).
I., 49. Dr. Dreyer suggests that a good field for a transit circle is

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 95

the observation on a systematic plan of the comparison Btars used
in the observations of planets and comets, and for which satisfac-
tory catalogue places cannot be found.

Sidereal System, On the Theory of the, proposed by Mr. Maxwell Hall.
By W. E. Plummer. II., 45. A review and examination of Mr.
Hall's paper published in the 43d vol. of the Memoirs R. A. S., in
which the author attempts " to connect Proper Motion with Annual
Parallax, and with the radial velocity of the fixed stars." From
the tests which he applies to Mr. Hall's theory, Mr. Plummer re-
gards the latter's results as inconclusive and untrustworthy.

Telescopic Stars, Christian Mayei-'s Observationsof, arranged according
to Constellations (H. C. F. C. Schjellerup). III., 57.

VI. SPHERICAL ASTRONOMY,

Polhohe, Ueber eine Methode die, moglichst frei von systematischen
Fehlern zu bestimmen. Von Prof. J. C. Kapteyn. III., 147.

Precession, Constant of, A New Determination of the. By J. L. E.
Dreyer, Ph.D. II., 185. Contains a description of the previous
labors of Bessel, Struve, and Nyren on this subject. Dr. Dreyer
takes as the basis of his work Lalande's " Histoire Celeste" and
Schjellerup's catalogue of 10,000 stars, and deduces a result which,
for 1800.0, is only 0".0046 less than the Slruve-Peters constant.

Right Ascensions. Lalande's, Note on the Accuracy of. By J. L. E.
Dreyer. III., 103.

VII. THEORETICAL ASTRONOMY.

A Comparison of Le Verrier's Tables of Uranus and Neptune with

those by Newcomb of the same Planets. By David P. Todd, M.A.

III., 233.
Kepler'sche Problem, Ueber das. Von Prof. J. C. Kapteyn. III., 25.
Kepler^ Remarques concernant le Probleme de. Par M. R. Radau. III.,

132.
Lambert'schen Gleichung fiir parabolische Bewegung, Ueber die Auf-

losung der. Von Prof. W. Klinkerfues. I., 5.
Problems der Drei Korper, Eine neue Behandlung des. Von Dr. H.

Kobold. II., 69.
Problem der Drei Korper, Bemerkung zu Dr. H. Kobold's Aufsatz tiber

das. Von Prof . Aug. Weiler. II., 130.
Special Perturbations, Note on the Computation of. By Ormond Stone.

II., 120.
Theorie der Bewegung der Himmels-Korper, Prof. Gyldcn's Neue Un-

tersuchungen uber die. Von Dr. O. Backlund. II., 203.
Wahren Anomalie, Ueber den zweiten Differentialquotienten der. Von

W. Klinkerfues. II., 163.
Wahren Anomalie genommen, Ueber den zweiten Differentialquoti-
enten von X nach der. Von August Weiler. III., 16.

VIII. ASTRONOMICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

" Cycle," A few Addenda to Admiral Smyth's (Editors). II., 93.

Manuscript der PulkowaerSternwarte, Ueber ein altes. Von A. Wagner.
II., 123. An Arabian manuscript containing data concerning the
annual increase in the mean longitude of the sun, from which M.

96 TKAKSACTIONS OF THE [mAR. 2^

Wagner deduces the length of the tropical year=365 days, Shours^
48 minutes, 46 seconds. Dr. Dreyer contributes some notes on M.
Wagner's paper, as an appendix thereto.
Recent Literature. Under this head the Editors have furnished reviews
of monographs and papers on various subjects. The papers re-
viewed are indexed chronologically as follows:

I., 139.

Variable Stars of Short Period. By Edward C. Pickering (Proc, Amer.
Acad., Vol. Xyi.).

Bibliographie generale de I'Astronomie. Par J. C. Houzeau et A. Lan-
caster.

Observations on Jupiter, by L. Trouvelot(Proc. Amer. Acad., Vol. XVI.).

Spectrum of Lalande 13412 (E. C. Pickering, Science, No. 41).

A Lost Comet (E. E. Barnard, Science, No. 47).

L, 183.

Reports on the Total Solar Eclipses of July 29, 1878, and Januaiy 11,

1880. Issued by the U. S. Naval Observatory.

Large Telescopes. By Edward C. Pickering (Proc. Amer. Acad,,

Vol. XVI.).
Observations of Double Stars made at the U. S. Naval Observatory by

Asaph Hall (Wash. Oba., 1877, App. VI.).
Contributions from the Washburn Observatory of the University of

Wisconsin, Number 1.
Note on Photographs of the Spectrum of the Comet of June, 1881. By

Prof. H. Draper (Amer. Journal, August, 1881).

I., 196.

Visite a divers Observatoires d'Europe : Notes de voyage par M. J.
Perrotin, Directeur de I'Observatoire de Nice.

Recherches sur la Verticale. Par M. Antoine d'Abbadie (Annales de la
Societe Scientifique de Bruxelles, 1881).

Quelques Resultats deduits de la Statistique Solaire. Par R. Wolf.
Premier Article (Mem. della Soc. degli Spettr. Ital., 1881).

Ueber den Doppelstern 2 QO = ?; Cassiopejas. Von Ludwig Struve (Me-
langes mathem. et astron., T. V.).

Note sur I'analyse de lalumieredelaComete de(&) 1881. ParCh. Fievez
(Bulletin de I'Acad. R. de Belgique, 3me serie, T. I.).

L, 216.

Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes. By the Rev. T. W. Webb;

Fourth edition, revised and greatly enlarged.
Annual Report of the Director of the Dearborn Observatory, Chicago.
South African Philosophical Society; Dr. Gill's Address, 29th July,

1881. An account of the work in hand at the Cape Observatory,
Catalogue of 12,441 Stars for the epoch 1880, from observations made

at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, during the years
1871 to 1879. By Edward James Stone, M.A., F.R.S., etc.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 97

Catalogue of 1,098 Standard Clock and Zodiacal Stars, prepared under

the direction of Simon Newcomb. (Papers prepared for the use of

the American Ephemeris, No. 4).
Photometric Measurements of the Variable Stars /J Persei and D. M.

81/35. By Edward C. Pickering, Arthur Searle, and O. C. Wendell.

(Proc. Amer. Acad., Vol. XVI.).

I., 239.

G. Schiapai-elli: Osservazioni astronomiche e fisiche suU' asse di rota-

zione e sulla topografia del pianeta Marte (Atti della R. Acad, dei

Lincei, Serie III.; Tiansunti, Vol. 5).
Observations sur i'aspect physique de Jupiter pendant I'opposition de

1878. Par L. Niesten (Annales astron. de I'Obs. R. de Bruxelles,

T. III.).
Astronomische Mittheilungen, von Dr. Rudolf Wolf, No. 53.
Reports of American Observatories (1879).
A Determination of the Solar Parallax from Observations of Mars made

at the Island of Ascension in 1877. By David Gill, LL.D. (Fronx

the Mem. R. Astron. Soc, Vol. 46.)

II., 20.

On the Relative Accuracy of Different Methods of Determining the

Solar Parallax. By Wm. Harkness (Amer. Jour., November, 1881).
Observations of the Transit of Mercury, 1881, November 7. at Mount

Hamilton, Cal. (Communicated by the Lick trustees.) By Edw. S.

Holdenand S. W. Burnham (American Journal of Science, January,

1883).
Zur Theorie des Encke'schen Cometen. Von O. Backlund (Mem. de

I'Acad. Imp. de St. Petersbourg, 7me serie, T. 28, No. 6).

II., 44.

Account of Observations of the Transit of Venus, 1874, December 8»
made under the Authority of the British Government, and of the
Reduction of the Observations. Edited by Sir George Biddell Airy,
K.C.B. Printed for H. M. Stationery Office, 1881.

II., 65.

Conference Internationale du Passage de Venus. Procesverbaux,
Paris, 1881.

Librorum in Bibliotheca Speculse Pulkovensis contentorum Catalogus
systematicus. Pars Secunda ab E Lindemanno elaborata. Eden-
dum curavit et pi-efatus est O. Struve. Petropoli, 1880.

Sur I'enregistrement des battements de secondes d'une pendule du
moyen du microphone. Par M. W. Meyer, astronome-adjoint a I'ob-
servatoire de Geneve (Archives des Sci. Phys. et Natur., troisieme
periode, T. VI.).

Thirty-sixth Annual Report of the Director of Harvard College Obser-
vatory. By E. C. Pickering.

II., 97.

Sur le compagnon de I'etoile y d'Andromede et sur un nouveau mode de
reglage d'un equatorial (Compt. Rend., T. XCIV.).

"98 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [mAE. 2,

G. V. Schiaparelli : Osservazioni . . . del Pianeta Marte, Memoria
seconda, osservazioni dell' opposizione 1879-80 (Roma, 1881).

I^otes on the Physical Appearance of the Planet Jupiter during the
Season 1880-81. By Dr. O. Boeddicker (Trans. Royal Dublin Soc,
Vol. I.).

Publicatiqns of the Cincinnati Observatory, 6 : Micrometrical Measure-
ments of 455 Double Stars observed during the Year ending Sep-
tember 1, 1880 (Cincinnati, 1882).

Heports of Astronomical Observatories for 1880 (Washington, 1881, from
the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1880).

Publicationen des astrophysicalischen Observatoriums zu Potsdam.
Zweiter Band, 1881.

Astronomical Observations and Researches made at Dunsink. Parti V.,
Dublin, 1882.

II., 156.

Observations of the Transit of Venus, December 8-9, 1874, made and
reduced under the direction of the Commission created by Con-
gress. Edited by Simon Newcomb. Part I., General Discussion
of Results. Washington, 1880.

The Multiple Star JS 748. By E.S.Holden. Washington, 1881. (Wash.
Obs., 1877, App. II.)

Publicationen der K. Universitats-Sternwarte zu Leipzig. Heft I. Leip-
zig, 1882.

Astronomische Mittheilungen von Dr. Rudolf Wolf, No.[.55.

[III., 21.

•" Areographische Beitrage zur genauern Kenntniss und Beurtheilung
des Planeten Mars." Von Dr. J. H. Schroter. Nach dem Manu-
scripte auf der Leidener Sternwarte herausgegeben von H. G. van
de Sande Bakhuyzen. Leiden, 1881.

Annals of the Observatory of Harvard College. Vol. XIII. Part I.,
Micrometric Measurements, ] 866-81. Cambridge, U. S., 1882.

Statement of Work done at the Harvard College Observatory during
the Years 1877-1882. By E. C. Pickering (Cambridge, 1882).

A Plan for securing Observations of Variable Stars. By E. C. Picker-
ing (Cambridge, 1882).

The Solar Parallax from Meridian Observations of Mars in 1877. By
J. R. Eastman (Wash. Obs. from 1877, Appendix HI.).

Ill,, 35.

Reaultados del Observatorio Nacional Argentino en Cordoba. B. A.
Gould. Vol. ii., Observaciones del Ano 1872 (Buenos Aires, 1882).

Celestial Charts made at the Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton Col-
lege, Clinton, N. Y. By C. H. F. Peters. Charts Nos. 1-20.

Etude du Spectre Solaire. Par Ch. FieveE (Bruxelles, 1882).

Zur Beurtheilung der Veranderlichkeit rother Sterne. Von E. Linde-
mann (Mem. de lAcad. Imp. de St. Petersbourg. T. XXX., No. 4).

Ueber den Einfluss der Diffraction an Fernrohren auf Lichtscheiben.
Von Hermann Struve(Mem. deTAcad. de St. Petersbourg, T. XXX.).

Kurzer Bericht iiber meine Untersuchungen iiber die Hypothese eines
wiederstehenden Mittels. Von O. Backlund (Melanges mathem. et
astr., T. VI.).

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 99

Bestammandet af en Planets massa medelst iakttagelser af satelliternas
indbordes liigen. Af O. Backlund (Proc. R. Swedish Acad., 1882).

III., 51.

Bestimmung des Masse des Planeten Jupiter aus Heliometer Beobach-
tungen der Abstande seiner Satelliten. Von Dr. W. Schur (Nova
Acta der Leop. Carol. Acad., Band XLV., Halle, 1882).

Logarithmisch-trigonometrisches Handbuch auf fiinf Decimalen bear-
beitet von E. Becker. Leipzig, 1882.

Observations of the Transit of Venus, made at the Washburn Observa-
tory, Madison, Wisconsin, 1882, December 5-6, By E. S. Holden
(Anier, Journal, 1883).

Madeira Spectroscopic, being a Revision of 21 places in the Red Half
of the Solar Visible Spectrum with a Rutherford Diffraction Grat-
ing at Madeira during the Summer of 1881. By C, Piazzi Smyth
(Edinburgh, 1882;.

The illustrated Account given by Hevelius in his " Machina Celestis"
of the Method of mounting his Telescopes and erecting an Obser-
vatory. Reprinted from an original copy, with some Remarks. By
C. Leeson Prince (1882).

Neue Reduction der Bradley'schen Beobachtungen aus den Jahren 1750
bis 1762. Von Arthur Auwers. Zweiter Band (St. Petersburg, 1882).

Thirty-seventh Annual Report of the Director of the Astronomical Ob-
servatory of Harvard College. By E. C. Pickering.

Memoire sur la Grande Comete australe du mois de Fevrier 1880. Par
M. Wilhelm Meyer (Mem. de la Soc. de Physique de Geneve, T.
XXVIII.).

III., 79.

Monograph of the central Parts of the Nebula of Orion. By Edward S.
Holden (Wash. Obs. for 1878, App. I.).

Publications of the Washburn Observatory of the University of Wis-
consin. Vol. I, (Madison, 1882),

III., 111.

UntersuchuDgen tiber die Pracessionsconstante auf Grund der Stern-
cataloge von Lalande und Schjellerup. Inaugural-Dissertation von
F. Bolte. Bonn, 1883.

IH., 127.

Resultate aus den in Pulkowa angestellten Vergleichungen von Pro-
cyon mit benachbarten Sternen. Von Ludwig Struve. St. Peters-
burg, 1888.

III., 145.

Publicationen des astrophysikalischen Observatoriums^ zu Potsdam,
Dritter Band. Potsdam, 1883.

III.,U85.

L* Aberration desEtoiles fixes. Par Magnus Nyren (Mem. de I'Acad. Imp.

de St. Petersbourg, 1883).
The Parallax of a Lyrsn and 61 Cygni. By Asaph Hall (Wash. Obs.,

1879, App. I.).

100 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [mAR. 2,

A Determination of the Semi-Diameter of the Moon from two occulta-
tions of the Pleiades observed on Jul}- 6, 1877, and September
6, 1879. By H. M. Paul (Wash. Obs., 1879, App. II.).

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
for the Year 1881 (Washington, 1883).

On the Influence of Magnetism on the Rate of a Chronometer. By O.
Boeddicker (Trans. R. Dublin Soc. Vol. III.).

III., 243.

Report on the Solar Eclipse of July, 1878. By Cleveland Abbe. (Prof
Papers of the Signal Service, No. 1, Washington, 1881).

IX. ASTRONOMICAL BIOGRAPHY.

Bruhns, Carl Christian. Obituary Notice (Editors). I., 165.
Klinlierfues, The late Professor. Ralph Copeland. III., 239.
Robinson, Thomas Romney. Obituary Notice (Editors). II., 64.
Powalky, Carl Rudolf. Obituary Notice (Editors). L, 165,

X. THE SUN.

Chromosphere, The, in 1880. By the Rev. S. J. Perry. I., '97.

in 1881. By S. J. P. II., 62.

in 1882. By S. J. P. III., 102.

in 1883. By S. J. P. III., 232.

Parallax, On the Solar, as derived from the American Photographs of
the Transit of Venus. 1874, December 8-9. By D. P. Todd, M. A. I.,
167. From a preliminary discussion of the equations formed
from the measures of the photographic plates, the author finds a
value of TT = 8. "883.

Tables ecliptiques, Supplement aux, de P. A. Hansen. Par H. C. F. C.
Schjellerup. I., 155. The tables to which these are an addendum
are publislied in Berichte der K. Sach. Gesell. der Wissenschaf-
ten, IX. (1857), pp. 75-112.

Sonnenfinsterniss, Beobaclitung der partiellen, zu O'Gyalla, 1882,
Mai 16. (Dr. H. Kobold). III., 76.

Sonnenflecken, Beobachtungen von, am Astrophysicalischen Observa-
torium zu O'Gyalla (Dr. H. Kobold). II., 89, 131, and 196.

XI. THE MOON.

Hiilfstafeln zur Erieichterung der Berechnung von Sternbedeckungen
durch den Mond. Von Dr. C. Borgen. I., 8. Errata in certain of
the forranlaj contained in this paper are found in I., 49.

Lunar Radiant Heat, Determinations of the, during the Progress of an
Eclipse. By the Earl of Rosse. I., 22.

Xn. VENUS.

Venus, Satellite of. On some hitherto Unknown Observations of a Sup-
posed. By H. C. F. C. Schjellerup. II., 164. The observations re-
ferred to are seven made by Roedkiaer in 1761, and one made by
Horrebow in 1768, at the Copenhagen Observatory.

Venus, Transit of, Observation of the; 1882, December 6, at the Armagli
Observatory. By J. L. E. Dreyer. III., 18.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 101

Venus, Transit of, Observation of the, 1882, December 6, at Markree
Observatory. By W. Doberck. III., 19.

Ibid., The Government Expedition to Madagascar to observe the,

on December 6, 1882. By the Rev. S. J. Perry, F.R.S. III., 67.
-Ibid., Observation of the, December 6, 1882, at the Observa-

tory of Queen's College, Cork. By Prof. J. England. III., 75.
Ibid., Observation of the, 1882, December 6, at Dun Echt Ob-
servatory. By J. G. Lohse. III.. 129.

XIII. MARS.

Mars in 1881-82, Note on the Aspect of. By C. E. Burton. II., 91.

XIV. JUPITER.

Jupiters, Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Rotationselemente. Von Dr. H.
Kobold. I., 123.

XV. NEPTUNE.

Neptune, Historical Note concerning the Discovery of. J. L. E. Dreyer.
II., 63. Dr. Dreyer shows that d' Arrest as well as Galle took part
in the observations that finally resulted in the discovery of Nep-
tune.

Neptune, Ueber die erste Auffindung des Planeten. J. G. Galle. II., 96.

XVI. MINOR PLANETS.

Kleiner Planeten, Beobachtungen, am Reichenbach'schen Meridian*
kreise zu Gottingen (Dr. H. Kobold). I., 94. Observations during
1880 of Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 14, 15, 20, 40, 43, 51, 78, 119.

Prize Question of the Royal Danish Society of Science. III., 51. The
Society here offers a gold medal "for a statistical investigation of
the orbits of the Minor Planets, considered as parts of a ring around
the sun."

XVII. NEBULAE.

Merope, Note on the Nebula near. By J. L. E. Dreyer. I., 156.

Nebulae, New. By A. Ainslie Common. I., 50.

Orion, Photograph of the Nebula in (Editors). I., 160. Notice of the

photograph of this object taken by Prof. Henry Draper on March

11th, 1881.
Orion, The Spectrum of the Nebula in, photographed (Editors). II., 68,

Notice of Dr. Huggins' photograph of the spectrum taken on March

7th, 1881.
Planetary Nebula, A New. By Ralph Copeland, Ph.D. I., 2.
Planetary Nebula, New. Edward C. Pickering. I., 242.
Positions of Nebulae. Series I. By C. H. F. Peters. I., 51.
Ibid., Series II. By C. H. F. Peters. 11., 54.

XVIII. DOUBLE STARS.

Double Stars, Recent Measures of. By C. E. Burton. I., 54.

Double Stars. On some Interpolation Formulae for. By Prof. T. N.
Thiele. II., 25. A very complete discussion of the most advanta-
geous formulge for the computation of double star orbits, under
varying conditions as regards the data to be used. Contains also a
set of auxiliary tables.

102 TKANSACTIONS OF THE [mAR. 2,

On y Virginis considered as a Revolving Double Star. By W. Doberck.
I., 143. A discussion of observations of this pair extending from

1718 to 1881.

XIX. RED STARS.

Red Stars, List of, observed at the Washburn Observatory, University

of Wisconsin, Madison, By Edward S. Holden. I., 176.
Red Stars, Markree Oltservations of. By W. Doberck. I., 208.

XX. VARIABLE STARS.

Nova Cygni, Spectroscopic and other Observations of Schmidt's, made
at Dun Echt Observatory (Ralph Copeland and J. G. Lohse), II.,
101.

Variable Star, A Xew (Editors). I., 238, and II., 157. The star is D. M.

+ 1% 3408.

XXI. STELLAR PARALLAX.

Researches on the Annual Parallax of the Star Groonibridge, 1618. By
Prof. Robert S. Ball, LL.D., F.R.S., Royal Astronomer of Ireland.
I.. 16.

Determination of the Annual Parallax of 6 Cygni B =2 2486. By
Robert S. Ball, LL.D., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal for Ireland.
II., lo9.

OntheParallaxof the Star Bradley. 3077. By O. Backlund. II.. 201. A
discussion of an incomplete series of differences of Right Ascension
observed by Wagner at Pulcova with the transit instrument.

XXII. STELLAR SPECTROSCOPY.

Remarkable Star Spectrum. Edward C. Pickering. I., 242.

XXIII. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS.

An Account of some recent Astronomical Experiments at high eleva-
tions in the Andes. Bv Ralph Copeland, Ph.D. III., 193.

Corrections. I., 242; II., 244.

Extracts from Two Letters from South America. Ralph Copeland.
III., 66.

Jottings on the Science of the Chinese. By Alexander Wylie. II., 169.

Meeting of the " AstronomischeGesellschaft " ac Strassburg, September
22-24, 1881, The. I., 200.

Notes on a recent Visit to some North American Observatories. By
Ralph Copeland. III., 133.

On the Telegraphic Transmission of Astronomical Data. I., 179.

U. S. Naval Observatory during the Year ending October 31, 1880,
The. I., 48.

REMARKS OX THE REDUCTION OF RUTHERFORD STAR PLATES.

BY J. K, REES.

(No Abstract.)
Prof. Rees exhibited some of the negatives made by Mr.
EuTHERFORD, and explained the operation of the apparatus for
making the measurements.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 103

After the reading of these papers the Section adjourned and
Prof. Allen again took the chair.

Mr. C. a. Post was proposed as a Resident Member.

The following committees have been formed by the Council :

On Nominations — The entire Council.

On the Library — Messrs. Allen, Britton, Cox, Julien,
and Newberry.

On Publications — Messrs. Allen, Bolton, Casey, Martin,
Newberry, and Rees.

On Public Lecture Course — Messrs. Bolton, Julien, and
Trowbridge.

March 9th, 1891.
Stated Meeting.
Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.
About fifty persons present.
Tlie following paper was read :

adaptation of the arc light to projections.

by L. H. LAUDY, PH.D.

(Abstract.)

The introduction of electricity into the business of life is one
of the noteworthy features in the history of the civilization of
the nineteenth century.

It is true that before 1850 science had discovered nearly all
the facts upon which the present industrial applications of elec-
tricity depend, and the laws and principles had all been an-
nounced at a much earlier date. Most of us are familiar with
the galvanic battery, the magneto-electric machine, the telegraph,
and the electroplating bath, bat at that time so limited was the-
application and so small the current necessary that the world
would hardly have felt the loss if by some strange accident the
agent had disappeared.

To-day thegreat industries and business centres depend largely
upon electricity for the transmission of sound, telegraphic com-
munication, light and power; and the enormous demands made
upon it, and the important position that it occupies in the in-
dustrial arts, are convincing proofs that it has come to stay.

104 TKAXSACTIONS OF THE [mAR. 9,

Every day brings to light some new application, and its use
develops with increasing rapidity. A few years ago we depend-
ed upon the galvanic battery for our electricity. For telegraphy
and electro-chemistry this answered, at that time, the purpose.
It was costly and troublesome, and many attempts had been made
to substitute mechanical generators for the production of elec-
tricity by the motion of coils of wire in a magnetic field; it was
not until some time after the discovery of Faraday in 1833 that
mechanical motion was applied to the i^roduction of electric
currents.

The electric industry has been born and carried to its present
state of development within the past ten years. At no time in
the history of the world have such rapid strides been made in
any of the applied sciences. This is due largely to the marvel-
lous skill and competition of inventors, manufacturers, and
users of so important a commodity; and now, for the first time
in the history of the world, electricity has become the subject of
commercial contracts, is bought and sold as a commodity of
every-day use, recorded and charged for in terms of energy it-
self, used at the pleasure and convenience of the consumer for
lighting, heating, mechanical, and chemical purposes.

Electricians should be congratulated for giving us a commo-
dity that is not capable of adulteration — for a given strength and
electromotive force is perfectly defined, no matter how it maybe
generated or what machine produces it, and with these two mea-
sures we can calculate the energy consumed. For by multiply-
ing the volts by the amperes we get the value expressed in watts,
746 of which are equivalent to one horse power. ... I need
hardly tell you that at the present time the most important ap-
plications of electricity are for light and power.

As regards the illumination of large spaces by the arc light,
and the further subdivision for domestic uses of the incandescent
light, the problem may be considered solved. It has been used
lor lantern projection to a limited extent, but I hope to see a
general adoption of the arc light for this purpose; and having
devoted some time to the subject, following it up from the days
in which the current was produced from batteries, until to-day
when we have on tap a current of electricity as we have gas and
water supply, it seems most fitting that my experience should be
given to the members of this Society, and my object in inviting
jou here this evening is to give you some experimental facts,
and to ask your verdict as to its application for lantern projec-
tions.

For lantern projections the usual method is to make use of
incandescent lime; this was a great advance over the oil lam}).

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 105

To-night I wish to show you the most intense light known to
science, and its adaptation for purposes of projection, which is
only awaiting a general adoption for use in the optical lantern.
There is no obstacle to prevent its use, and it recommends itself
upon its merits to all workers in this direction. . . .

(A brief history of the electric light follows.) The electric
light is the outgrowth of the experiments of Sir Humphry
Davy, made at the Koyal Institution, London, in 1801, when
he made use of 2,000 cells with which he decomposed sodic
and potassic hydrates and separated their metallic bases.

These experiments were repeated and extended, and by using
charcoal points as terminals an intense and dazzling light was
produced, to which the name voltaic arc was given.

The arc light, then produced from a battery, brilliant as it is,
was confined to the lecture-room or au occasional outdoor dis-
play. The fatal difficulty was the labor and cost of the elec-
trical energy, and it was not until the discovery of induced cur-
rents by Faraday that this obstacle was removed. The light
produced by the voltaic arc received no practical application
until 1844, at which time it was regarded as an interesting
lecture experiment, requiring the use of large and powerful
batteries, together with suffocating fumes, and labor for a
possible use of one or two hours. In 1844 Leon Foucault made
use of the Bunsen battery, and replaced the charcoal points used
by Davy with pieces of compact gas carbon. He also constructed
a lamp worked by hand, and the first use made of it was in tak-
ing daguerreotypes and lighting La Place de la Concorde at
Paris.

It required the combined labors of ISTollet, Van Maldern,
Holmes, Wilde, Ladd, and Siemens to produce by mechanical
means, direct from motion, a supply of electrical energy that
would equal that produced from the battery. Even as late as
1870 this did not seem possible, for the best dynamos at that
time yielded only a small amount of electrical energy.

In 1871 Gramme presented to the Academy of Science the
description of a form of magneto-electric machine possessing
new features, which were so remarkable as to astonish the world.
•Gramme conceived the idea of using a ring, and rotating this
between the poles of a magnet in such a way as to prevent re-
versals in the armature. Many ridiculed this idea. Neverthe-
less it produced in practice a machine that yielded large currents
at much less cost, and laid the foundation of our present system
of electric lighting.

From whatever source the electricity is supplied, it is neces-
sary that it meet with some resistance to produce light, and this

106 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [MAR. 9^

condition is best fulfilled, for the production of the arc light,,
when two pieces of carbon are made to touch and then slightly
separate ; the current in passing between the space so increases
the resistance as to produce light of great intensity, and is called
the arc light.

That a constant resistance may be obtained favorable to the
production of light, some mechanical device that will separate
and regulate the distance of the carbons is essential. Such an
apparatus is called a regulator, or arc lamp.

There are few inventions on which so much ingenuity has
been expended as on arc lamps. The number is already very great
and is on the increase, and every bulletin of the Patent Office
is sure to contain several inventions of this kind.

The first lamp for regulating the position of the carbons was
devised by Thomas Wright, of London, in 1845.

A few years later Le Molt, of France, devised a clockwork
regulator which kept the light steady for several minutes at a
time, but the flickering was too great to make it of any practical
value.

These were followed by Archereaus, Jasper, lurgenseh, Gaiffe,
Keynier, Foucault, and many others, each lamp an improvement
on the older forms, which brought the standard of regulators to
its present state of perfection. Flickering was regarded at
one time as a part of an arc light, just as sparking at the
brushes of a dynamo was thought to be a necessary accompani-
ment.

In 1849 Foucault devised a clockwork regulator that. differed
in many details from the ones before used and gave comparative
satisfaction. It was extensively employed for scientific purposes,
and, in fact, was the only lamp that was suitable for lantern
projection, and is used to-day in many physical laboratories in
preference to other lamps.

The next advance was by Serrin, whose regulator kept the
carbons exceedingly steady and maintained them in their rela-
tive positions. This lamp has been used for lighthouse illumi-
nation, and still maintains that position; for, like the Foucault,
it is a focussing lamp, the function of which is to maintain the
carbons at a central point. To produce this effect the carbons
are so arranged that a different motion is imparted to each, that
the wearing away may bo compensated for by a more rapid
movement of the positive pole with only a gradual waste of the
negative carbon. By this simultaneous approach of both car-
bons, the positive moving through double the distance of the
negative, the arc preserves its normal length and its position is
maintained in space. This is accomplished by an ingenious

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 107

mechanical device, actuated either by clockwork or electro-
magnets.

The regulation of the length of arc that shall produce the
most intense light with the least current is confined to very
narrow limits, and the mechanical construction of the lamp
that will yield satisfactory results must be most perfect. In
many of the lamps this regulation is still wanting, and lamps
lacking the above essentials, that are put together without re-
gard to any electrical laws, with the hope that chance may make
them work, produce a hissing and hammering noise that is dis-
agreeable when silence is required, and are not to be recom-
mended for any purpose.

Between the better lamps there is not much to choose for or-
dinary illumination ; but for special purposes, as in the case of
lantern projection, some points are of vital importance, for the
success will depend mainly upon the steadiness, good behavior,
and excellence of the automatic feed and position of the carbons,
together with a uniform action of the dynamos, ... At pre-
sent arc lights are run both by continuous and Jby alternat-
ing currents — i.e., in some cases the current is steadily in the
same direction, while in others the current consists of pulses,
alternately positive and negative, succeeding each other at the
rate of from 200 to 300 per second. The operation of nearly all
the arc lamps in use is based upon the principle that a current
of electricity will divide itself in direct proportion to the resist-
ance offered by a conductor. In an arc lamp two ways are pro-
vided in which the current can go — either through the low or
high resistance coil of the lamp. When the current passes
through the low-resistance coil it pulls the feed rod up and
strikes the arc ; any alteration in the resistance will change the
direction of the current, and thus give an automatic movement
to the feed rod. When the resistance increases, part of the cur-
rent will pass through the high-resistance coil, which will de-
press the feed rod and bring the carbons together. The coils
are so wound that the resistances due to a certain separation of
arc will just balance each other, thus maintaining a steady
light. . . . The design of the lamp depends upon the con-
dition with Avhich it is to be supplied with current ; that is,
whether it is supplied by a constant potential with a variable
current, as is furnished by the Edison Company, or low-tension
current — that is, having a voltage of 115 to 120 volts — or whether
it is fed from a variable potential and constant current of high
voltage, as is used in series arc lighting. This current is known
as high potential, and the voltage runs in most cases from 1,000
to 3,000 volts. The objection to the latter is that to make any

108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [ilAR. 9,

adjustment of the lamp the current must be turned off, as the
lamp cannot be handled witli the current on without danger,
possibly attended with fatal results. The current used for pro-
jection should be of low tension, for with this the lamp can be
handled without danger, and all adjustments may be made while
the lamp is in operation. . . . The intensity of the arc depends
upon the current used and the size of the carbons. The inten-
sity of the arc light has been variously estimated at from 400 to
2,000 candle power. With a variable arc this will take place,
but for purposes of projection this objectionable feature has been
removed. With a proper position of the carbons these changes
in the intensity of the light fall within narrow limits, and the
fluctuation due to mechanical movements in the lamp is small,
as the interval of feed is about two seconds. The intensity of
the light when the carbons are arranged as described for projec-
tion is from 1,200 to 1,500 candle power.

The oxyhydrogeu light under the best conditions will yield
from 600 to 1,000 candle power. The character and color of
the lime light are as different from those of the arc light as are
its optical properties. The lime light has a yellow tinge and
the volume is large, making it impossible to converge the rays
to a focus.

. The arc light has the advantage over all other methods of il-
lumination ; its small cost per candle power, intensity, white-
ness, and parallel rays make it especially well adapted for pur-
poses of projection, as it admits a larger number of rays to pass
through the optical centre of the condenser, and these rays can
be brought to a perfect focus, thus producing a correct image
with flatness of field, which is essential to produce sharp and
well-defined pictures.

This matter of increased intensity is of the utmost impor-
tance, especially in large public halls where the pictures are en-
larged many hundred times without regard to the diminished
illumination produced by means of the oxyhydrogen light,
which fails to bring out the details in the shadows, much to the
disappointment of audience and producer of the slide. These
considerations alone are enough to warrant its introduction for
general lise. When we consider that no skill is required in the
operation of the lamp (other than to turn the switch and regu-
late the resistance), t feel that you will agree with me that the
arc light, so many times denounced and said by some to be im-
practicable for projection, has now become indispensable for a
progressive community.

At the close of the paper the Academy expressed its thanks to
Dr. Laudy by a unanimous vote.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 109'

March 16th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

About one hundred and twenty-five persons present.

In the absence of any of the oflBcers, Mr. P. H. Dudley was
called to the chair.

The minutes of March 9th were read and approved.

Mr. Dudley then introduced Prof. Charles Sprague
Smith, of Columbia College, who delivered a lecture entitled

THE ORKNEYS AND SHETLAND,

illustrated by lantern slides from photographs taken by the lec-
turer.

At the close of the discourse a vote of thanks was extended to
Prof. Smith, and the meeting adjourned.

March 23d, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.

About fifty persons present.

Dr. Hubbard announced that the meeting was called to form
provisionally a Section of Ethnology, and asked for nominations
for chairman and secretary.

Dr. Frederick Starr and W. B. Schoonmaker were chosen;
also a Committee on Permanent Organization, consisting of
Drs. Hubbard and Starr, and Prof. Martin.

Dr. Starr then read a paper entitled

THE man of the STONE AGE.

(Abstract. )

What is meant by the Stone Age? Notice that it is a term
descriptive of a stage of culture, not of a definite time. In
Western Europe the Stone Age is easily distinguished into pa-

110 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jlAR. 23,

laeolithic and neolithic periods. It is followed by the Bronze
■ Age, and this by the Iron Age. These terms are all convenient,
but must be used with care, and it must be remembered that
this sequence is local, not universal.

Hoiv the stone tool is made. — {a) Chipping ; three methods :
1, by blows ; 2, by pressure ; 3, by fire. Descriptions of these
methods, {b) Polishing, (c) Drilling. Two kinds of drilled
holes, one made by a solid drill, tiie other by a hollow drill.
Skill in stone- tool making. Fine specimens of the work from
Denmark, Ohio, Tennessee, etc.

The stone tool exerts an influence on the man of the Stone
Age. {a) Affects the development of other arts. The carpen-
try of the Stone Age man. Haf ting axe blades. Making boards.
-Cordage. Cements. (Z>) Leads to treaties and compacts. The
pipestone quarry. Australian jade quarries, (c) Leads to the
beginnings of trade. The contents of an Ohio mound. Eed
pipestone. {d) Leads to division of labor.

Examples of Stone Age man : (a) Of the olden times. The
cave-dweller of France, {h) Of recent date. The Polynesians.
The Alaskans. Modes of life. Acquisitions and attainments.

After the Stone Age notice two things : {a) The old tool
becomes venerated. Tne folk-lore of stone tools. Curious beliefs
regarding arrow-heads and celts. *' Spiders lay the arrowheads/*
so the Sioux say. Celts and axes of stone fall from heaven and
have healing virtue, [h) The old tool lingers on in religious
rite after it has gone from every-day use. The conservatism of
religion — e.g., fire drill of Sacs and Foxes. The fire of Japanese
priests. So we find the stone tool retained in ceremonies, as cir-
cumcision among Jews, blood-covenant of Arabs, and in em-
balming of Egyjitians.

Thus we are debtors to the Stone Age man : («) for a vast
quantity of the greatest inventions and institutions ; (i) for a
mass of superstition, etc., which clings to us, and will for long
years to come.

The paper was profusely illustrated with lantern slides of
great interest.

A vote of thanks was accorded to Prof. Starr, and the meet-
% ing adjourned.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Ill

March 30th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Vice-Preside]st Dr. Hubbard in the chair.

About thirty persons present.

The minutes of March 23d, 1891, were read and approved.

Dr. Bolton read a communication from Prof. O. T. Mason,
asking whether the point of 170th St., on the Hudson Eiver,
should be called Jeffrey's Hook or Fort Washington Point.
[Note. — The Editor would be pleased to receive information
from members and others on this topic]

Hon. Warren Higley was then introduced, and addressed
the meeting on the proposed Adirondack Park, with special
reference to the economic aspects. Further interesting remarks
were made on the subject by Dr. Hubbard, Messrs. Roberts,
Henderson, Potter, Potts, and Garrettson, and Prof.
Martin.

It was voted that the Chairman should appoint a committee
of three to draw up a petition to the Legislature, urging the
passage of such bills as were now before them and which would
tend to preserve the forest areas of the State.

Dr. Hubbard announced that he would appoint such com-
mittee before the next meeting.

April 6th, 1891.

Regular Business Meeting.

Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.
About twenty-five persons present.
The minutes of March 2d were read and approved.
Dr. Hubbard announced the following Committee on For-
estry Legislation :

N. L. Britton.

Francis T. Garrettson.

D. S. Martin.

112 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [APR. 6^

The following recommendations of the Council (March 26th)
were approved, and the member duly elected.

I. The rei:)ort of the Conference Committee on the advisabil-
ity of closer union with the other scientific societies of New
York City :

CONFERENCE OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE SCIENTIFIC ASSO-
CIATIONS.

Meeting of March llth, 1891, American 3Iuseum of Natural History.

The Council of the New York Academy of Sciences having by
resolution approved the report of a committee recommending a^
conference of representatives of the several scientific societies of
New York, and the Secretary of the Academy having notified
the secretaries of the other scientific societies of the action, and
at the same time requesting the appointment of two delegates
from each, a conference of these delegates, called by the Com-
mittee of the Council of the Academy of Sciences, was held at
the American Museum of Natural History on Wednesday eve-
ning, March llth, 1891.

The delegates appointed from each society were as follows :

From the New York Academy of Sciences : Mr. C. F. Cox,
Dr. N. L. Britton.

From the Torrey Botanical Club : Dr. H. H, Eusby, Dr.
Thomas Morong.

From the New York Microscopical Society : Rev. J. L. Za-
briskie. Prof. J. D. Hyatt.

From the Linnaean Society of New York : Prof. J. A. Al-
len, Mr. G. B. Sennett.

From the Arch^ological Institute of America, New York
branch : Prof. Allan Marquand, Mr. Russell Sturgis.

From the New York Mathematical Society : Dr. Emory
McClintock ; Dr. Thomas S. Fiske.

From the New York Mineralogical Club : Dr. E. S. F. Ar-
nold, Mr. W. B. Sciioonmaker.

The following delegates attended : Dr. Emory McClintock,
Prof. J. A. Allen, Prof. J. D. Hyatt, Mr. C. F. Cox, Dr. E.
S. F. Arnold, Mr. W. B. Schoonmaker, Dr. N. L. Britton.

Dr. Britton was elected Secretary of the Conference.

After an extended discussion of the means which might be
taken to affiliate the several societies for mutual benefit and sup-
port, and to stimulate the progress of science in the city, it was
unanimously resolved to submit the following recommendations
to the societies :

1. The formation of a permanent organization, to be com-

1891.] XEAV YORK ACADEMY OF SCIEXCES. ' 113

posed of the president and two other members of each society,
to act as a Joint Commission, having advisory powers only.

2. The preparation of an annual directory, giving the name
and address of each member of each society, together with an
indication of the societies of which he is a member. The ex-
pense of printing and distributing this directory to be divided
among the societies pro rata to their membership, a copy to be
sent to each member of each society.

3. The preparation of a periodical bulletin, to give the time
and place of meeting of each society, and as far as possible the
titles of papers to be read, lectures delivered, and such other in-
formation as may be deemed advisable. This bulletin to be sent
to each member of each society, and the expenses connected
with its preparation and distribution to be divided in the same
manner as suggested for the directory.

•i. The invitation of every member of each society to attend
the ordinary meetings of all the societies as a gnest.

5. Tiiat the secretary of each society be, and hereby is, re-
quested to inform the Secretary of this Conference when action
on these recommendations has been taken by the associations^
and of the nature of such action.

Several other plans of action were discussed by the Confer-
ence, among them the desirability of obtaining a building for a
common meeting place of all the societies, the possibility of ar-
ranging for a single annual due to give membership in all, the
holding of periodical joint meetings to enable the members to
become more generally acquainted, the arrangement of courses
of scientific lectures. No action was taken on any of these
topics.

The Conference then adjourned to the call of the Secretary.

JST. L. Bkitton,
Secretary of the Conference.

II. The election of C. A. Post, Eesident Member.
Prof. Brixton introduced Mr. Heixrich Ries, a visitor,
who read a paper entitled

XOTE ON" ROCK EXPOSURE AT 143 D AND 144TH STS. AND

SEVENTH AVE.

Mr. Theo. A. Rand, of Philadelphia, in a communication to
Prof. D. S. Martin, speaks of an outcrop of gneiss at 14oth
street and Seventh avenue, being mentioned by T. Sterry Hunt
in his "Mineral Phys. and Phys." Being in New York City a
short time ago, Mr.*^Rand visited this locality, and found a por-

114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [aPR. 6,

tion of the outcrop remaining at 144th street and Seventh ave-
nue. He remarks on the resemblance of the rock to the Manay-
uuk schists of Hall, and suggests that it be examined.

I went up there and obtained photographs and specimens, and
noted the following. The strata, of gray gneiss, are much con-
torted and show a number of synclinals, a large one, in the centre
of the outcrop, being of a compact gneiss in which feldspar pre-
dominates. Scattered through the rock are segregated veins
of pegmatite, while cutting directly across the strata, with a dip
of 30° W., is a vein of granite. This vein may be seen on the
south end of the outcrop, and also on the north side of 144th
street.

At 143d street and Seventh avenue is an outcrop of a dark-
colored, fine-grained mica schist. This outcrop also contains
several granite veins, cutting across the strata, and one of them
being branched. These two rock outcrops are thus specially
interesting on account of these veins, which seem to be injected
rather than segregated ones, with the exception of the pegma-
tite veins previously mentioned. The outcrops do not, as sug-
gested by Mr. Rand, throw any further light upon the question
of the exact geological age of the rocks of Manhattan Island.

The following papers were read by W. Goold Levison:

I. NOTE ON AN ECONOMICAL ZINC ELEMENT FOR BUNSEN

BATTERIES,

illustrated by apparatus.

This modification consists in using a number of zinc plates
clamped to a brass collar by set screws. It is claimed that by
this means greater surface and consequently greater efficiency
is gained. If one or more plates are used up, new ones may
be inserted with ease, and need not interrupt the action of the
apparatus.

II. NOTE ON PHOTOMICROGRAPHS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS OF

LIGHTNING,

illustrated by lantern slides.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 115

April 13th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Ten persons present.

In the absence of officers, Prof. Brition was chosen to pre-
side.

The minutes of March 30th were read and approved.

The Secretary read an invitation from the New York Micro-
scopical Society to their Twelfth Annual Reception, which
was accepted.

The report of the Forestry Committee was read and adopted,
and the Secretary was directed to mail a copy to the Legislature.

New York, April 9th, 1891.

The Committee appointed by the President to draft resolu-
tions concerning the preservation of forest lands in the State
of New York, would respectfully submit the following:

Whereas, The preservation of our remaining forest areas, and
especially those in the region of the Adirondacks, is of immense
importance to the business interests and the sanitary welfare of
the citizens of the State, and should be secured by all safeguards
of law; and

Whereas, Two bills prepared by the New York State Forestry
Association are now before the Legislature for action, the one
providing for important restrictions upon the building of rail-
roads on forest lands belonging to the State, and the other pro-
hibiting the construction of permanent dams, which have been
so great a cause of forest destruction by overflow in recent years.

Resolved, That The New York Academy of Sciences re-
gards the provisions of these bills as wise, judicious, and timely,
and deems their passage a matter of pressing importance; and

Resolved, That the Academy would respectfully urge upon

both houses of the Legislature the prompt adoption of these

measures, as a step toward the protection of our forests and the

maintenance of the conditions that all experience shows to be

-demanded by every requirement of an enlightened public policy.

D. S. Martin,
N. L. Britton,
J. J. Garrkttson.

There being no announced paper. Prof. Britton made a few

116 TRANSACTIOXS OF THE [aPK. 37^

remarks on the flora of South America, especially of the eastern
slope of the Cordilleras of Bolivia, which section has been ex-
plored in recent years by Dr. Rusby.

April 20th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Vice-Peesident Peof. Allen in the chair.

About one hundred persons present.

The minutes of April 13th were read and approved.

Feancis B. Crockee, E.M., of Columbia College, was in-
troduced, and delivered a lecture entitled

. PEACTICAL APPLICTATIOJSrS OF ^LECTEICITY,

illustrated experimentally.

At the close of the discourse a vote of thanks was tendered
the lecturer, and the meeting adjourned.

April 37th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

About twenty persons present.

In the absence of ofiBcers, Peof. Eees was chosen to preside.

The minutes of April 20th were read and approved.

The minutes of the Section of Astronomy and the report of
the Committee on Permanent Organization of the Section were
read and approved.

The election of officers of the Section followed, resulting in
the choice of J. K. Kees as President, and L. H. Jacoby as
Secretary.

Peof. Rees took the chair and briefly addressed the Section.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIEXGES. 117

The following paper was read, entitled

STELLAR PHOTOilETRY.
BY HENRY M. PARKHURST.

(Abstract.)

Estimations of the brightness of stars are liable to considerable
error of judgment, causing an irregularity in the scale; and there
is no tendency in the repetition of estimations to reduce this
error. Any mode of measurement, liowever imperfect, if free
from systematic errors, tends to make the scale of magnitudes
uniform. The basis of photometric measures is the reduction
of the observed star, by diminishing the aperture or by other
means, either to invisibility or to equality of brightness with a
standard star. The Meridian Photometer employed at Harvard
Observatory compares the observed stars either with Polaris it-
self or with other standard polar stars previously compared with
Polaris. This method appears to be free from systematic error,
but has not yet been applied to the fainter telescopic stars.
Various methods which have been employed to reduce t)ie effec-
tive aperture were described, with the details necessary to secure
accuracy. The illumination of the sky, whether by twilight,
moonlight, or even by ordinary starlight, causes a large sys-
tematic error, unless this is specially provided against. The
photometer used by the speaker in asteroid observations and in
variable star observations avoids this difficulty by making the
illumination the same with stars of all magnitudes. The loga-
rithmic caps placed over the object-glass make the scale uni-
form. Other details described make bias impossible, bright
stars and faint stars appearing precisely alike just before their
extinction. This method has been employed for stars about
two magnitudes fainter than could be measured with the Meri-
dian Photometer.

Another mode of extinguishing observed stars is by the
wedge, of neutral tint glass, which is capable of measuring
stars nearly two magnitudes fainter still. But the scale of the
wedge is so much affected by illumination that even a change of
magnifying power causes a considerable change of scale. This
method is especially adapted for occasional work, requiring very
little apparatus and very little adjustment, but is purely differ-
ential, requiring standards to be well determined by other
means. The paper concluded with a description of the appara-
tus by which the scale of the wedge could be determined with
accuracy for stars too faint to be measured by other means.

118 TKANSACTIONS OF THE [MAY 11,.

May 4th, 1891.

Eegular Business Meeting.

Held in the Chemical Lecture Room, School of Mines.

Twenty-one persons present.

In the absence of officers Mr. McOarty was elected Chair-
man and Dr. Britton Secretary pro tern.

The minutes of April 6th were read and approved.

Dr. T. Sterry Hunt and Dr. Simon Newcomb were elected
Honorary Members.

The following paper was read, entitled

ELECTRIC METERS.
BY L. H. LAUDY, PH.D.

Illustrated by diagrams, apparatus, and experiments.'

May 11th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.

Seven persons present.

The minutes of April 27th were read and approved.

Jose G. Aguilera, Escuela de Mineria, Mexico City, was
proposed as Corresponding Member by George F. Kunz.

There being no paper for the evening, the meeting adjourned.

' The autlior explained to his audience most of the forms of appara-
tus used for measuring the electric energy for lighting purposes, com-
paring their accuracy with gas meters. He also spoke of the compara-
tive cost and efficiency of illumination by oil, gas, and electricity.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 11&*

May 18th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

About one hundred persons present.

In the absence of oflBcers, Addison Brown was chosen to
preside.

The minutes of May 11th were read and approved.

C. F. Cox, A.M., was introduced, and delivered a lecture en-
titled

WHAT IS A DIATOM ?

illustrated by a large number of lantern slides. At the close of
the discourse a vote of thanks was tendered to the lecturer, and
the meeting adjourned.

May 25th, 1891.

Stated Meeting, Astronomical Section.

Prof. Rees in the chair.

About twenty-five persons present.

The minutes of the meeting of April 27th were read and ap-
proved.

The following paper was read, entitled

THE HISTORY OF LEXELL's COMET FROM 1770 TO 1890.
BY CHARLES LANE POOR.

(No abstract.)

The paper illustrated the action of Jupiter and Saturn in^
drawing comets into the solar system.

June 1st, 1891.
Regular Business Meeting.
Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair.
Eight persons present.

,120 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jUNE 1,

There being no quorum, the meeting was adjourned to the
"first Monday in October.

Before adjournment Dr. Britton spoke of a curious occur-
rence of vertical needle-shaped ice crystals in limonite soil on
Staten Island. These crystals were from two to three inches
high, and the apices covered with soil, showing that they had
been projected through the crust and had grown from below.
Areas of many hundred square yards were covered with them.
The crystals were deflected in the direction of the prevailing
wind, and were smaller at the edges of the areas. Normally the
ground was boggy. It is thought that this phenomenon is due to
compression.

Prof. Martin announced the death of Prof. C. A, Joy, and
was appointed a committee of one to draw up and present a
suitable resolution.

Note by the Editor.

It is my painful duty to announce to the Academy the death
of the Librarian, Dr. John 1. Northrop, the result of a distress-
ing accident which occurred at Columbia College, June 27th,
1891.

Dr. Northrop graduated from the School of Mines as a
mining engineer in 1883. After some time spent in travel, he
returned to this country and entered the Department of Geology
of the School of Mines, occupying the position of Fellow and
devoting his time to zoology. Kecently he made a trip to the
Bahama Islands, where he remained for several months, making
a large collection of the flora and fauna of the section. His re-
sults are embodied in a paper read before the Academy and pub-
lished in the current volume of the Transactions.

Dr. Northrop was elected a member of the Academy in
1887. In 1890 he was chosen Librarian, to fill the vacancy oc-
casioned by the resignation of A. W. Vogdes, and re-elected
this spring. Dr. Northrop leaves a widow and ciiild.

H. T. Vulte.

1891.]

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Errata.

I2i

Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Vol. X., No. 1, page 23 :

For Mrs. Theodore Sucro read Mrs. Matilda Sutro.

Nos. 4-5, page 52 :

Line of
article.

8 th

read
read

for Miniocichla
Miraocichla.
8th for Gundlachi

gundlachi.
9th for G 1 t li 1 y p i s read
Geothlypis.
12th for Ictnrns read Icterus.
12-13th for Northropi read

northropi.
15th for cocyzus minor May-
nardi read Coccyzus
minor maynardi.
15th for Bahamensis read ba-
hamensis.

Line of
article.

17th

18 th
18th

19th

23d

1st

for Nycti corax read Nyc-
ticorax.

for Coreyi read coryi.

for Bahamensis read ba-
hamensis.

for Autrostomus Caroli-
nensis read Antrosto-
mus carolinensis.

for Waterhousei read
Avaterhousei.

(p. 53) for cychera read
cyclura.

INDEX,

PAGE

Acid, hydrazoic 43

Adirondack Park Ill

^olian rock 7

Age, stone 109

Albumenoids 34

Am boy clays B

American Folk-Lore Society.. 37

Analysisof grains and cereals, 24

Animal mounds 40

Antrostomus carolinensis, ... 53

Applications of electricity 116

Arc light 103

Arc lamp ... 104

Ardea bahamensis 54

Argentiferous galena 63

Arts, Winnebago 39

Astronomy, Section of 67

Avefauna, Bahaman 54

Avicennia 6

Avicennia nitida 15

Bahamas 3

formation of 21

geology of. 4

Bahama Bank, Great 4

Little 4

Bahamensis, pinus. 6

Bahaman birds 52

avefauna 54

Banana holes 13

Bank, Caicos 4

Beach, Coronado 31

Redondo 31

Beryls 50

Bibliography of natural his-
tory, etc 71

Bills 1

Boiling holes 12

Bolivia, flora of 115

Builders, mound 42

Bunsen battery, new form of, 114

By-Laws 55

PAGE

Caicos Bank 4

Calculation of star places, etc. 86

California, musical sand in. . . 31

Callichelidon cyaueoviiidis. ., 62

Casey, Thomas L 53

Caves 10

human bones in 11

Cay, Salt 4.

Cays north of New Provi-
dence, formation of 19

Ci-bo-hi-kan 41

Clays, Amboy 41

Cliff dwellings 44

Coccyzus minor maynardi 53

Collecting specimens 83

Comet, history of Lexell's 119

Committee, Conference, on
Union of Local Socie-
ties 112

on Revision of the By-
Laws o9

Committees, Standing 103

Conocarpus 6

erectus 16

Constitution Supplement

Contributions to Invertebrate

Palaeontology 4

Copernicus, index to 87

Copper . . . . 59

Coronado Beach 31

Corresponding members. .Supple-
ment.

Crocidolite 4

Crystals, ice 120

Cyclura bocolopha 52

Deposits, surface 8

Diamonds 49

Diatoms 119

Doricha evelynae 52

Dutch Gap 36

Dwellings, cliff 44

124

INDEX.

PAGE

Eclipse expedition to South

Africa 2

Effects of vegetation on the

surface 14

Electric currents from batter-
ies 105

currents by induction. . . . 105

meters 118

Electricity, applications of... 116

Erosion S

Errata 121

Ethnology, Section of 109

Evidences of subsidence and

elevation 18

Felipe Poey, obituary notice

of 56

Fellows, resident Supplement

Fissurella 7

Flora of Bolivia 115

of Laramie 3

Folk- Lore Society, American. 37

Formation of the Bahamas. . . 21

of the cays north of New

Providence 19

Forestry, report of the Com-
mittee on... 115

Free gold 59

Galena, argentiferous 62

Garden, sea 5

Garnets 50

Geological age, etc., of the Po-
tomac group 36

Geology of the Bahamas 4

Geothlypis I'ostrata 52

Gold, free 59

Grains and cereals, analysis of 24

Great Bahama Bank 4

Great Northern Railroad 57

Hawaiian Islands 3

Hills, Sweet Grass 57

History of Lexell's Comet 119

Holes, banana 12

bailing 12

ocean 11

pot 8

Honorary members. . Supplement

Human bones in caves 10

Hydrazoic acid 43

Ice crystals ; . 120

PAGE

Icterus northropi (new) 52

Index to Copernicus 87

Invertebrate palaeontology,

contributions to 4

Iron, magnetic 59

Islands, Hawaiian 3

Jeff Davis Mine.

63

Kapa 27

Kauai 28

Kjeldahl method 24

Kootenai Lake 57-61

Laguna Beach 32

Lake Kootenai 57-61

Lamp, arc 104

Lantern projections 103

Laramie tiora 3

Leis 27

Lexell's Comet, history of 110

Light, arc 103

oxyhydrogen 104

Little IBahama Bank 4

Macrotus waterhousei 52

Madrepora cervicornis 7, 20

palmarum 20

Mseandrina 7

Magnetic iron 59

Magnitudes, star 117

Mangroves 6

Manganese 59

Manufacture of stone tools ... 110

Method, Kjeldahl 24

Von Asboth 25

Members, honorary. . .Supplement
corresponding. . . .Supplement

resident Supplement

Meters, electric 118

Mimocichla plumbea 52

Mimus polyglottis 52

gundlachi 52

Monticellite 70

Mounds, animal 40

Mound builders 42

Mt. Morris 59

Mus rattus 53

Musical sand 28

in California 31

at Coronado Beach 31

at Laguna Beach 32

in Mexico 32

at Monterey 32

INDEX.

125

PAGE

Musical sand at Pescadero ... 31

at Redondo 31

at San Francisco 32

at Santa Barbara 31

theories of 33

Natural history, bibliography

of 71

"New form of Bunsen battery. 1 14

New Providence 5

New York Island, rock ex-
posures on 113

Nohili.. 29

Nominations of officers 57

Northrop, Dr. John I., obitu-
ary notice 1 20

Nycticorax naevius 52

Obituary notice of Prof. Felipe

Poey. 56

of Dr. J. I. Northrop 120

Ocean holes 11

Officers, nomination of 57

Order of Court Supplement

Outliers 10

Oxyhydrogen light 104

Palmettos 6

Park, Adirondack Ill

Patrons, list of Supplement

Pescadero 31

Petroleum in quai'tz 57

Peziza aeruginosa 37

jungermannias 37

Phoeiiicopterus ruber 52

Phosphorescent wood 37

Photometry, stellar 117

Pinus bahamensis 6

Polioptila cserulea caesio-

gaster 52

Pot holes. . . 8

Potomac group, geological

age, etc 36

Price of the Transactions 1

Projections, lantern 103

Quartz, petroleum in 57

Quartzite 59

Rallus coryi 52

iiedondo Beach, musical sand

at 31

PAGE

Report of Committee on For-
estry 115

Conference Committee on
union of local scientific

societies 112

Resident members and fellows.

Supplement

Revised By-Laws 49

Revision of By-Laws, com-
mittee on 37

Rbacicallis rupestris 15

Rhizomorphs 16

Rock exposures on New York

Island 113

Rocks, ^olian 7

Rutherford star plates, reduc-
tion of 102

Salt Cay 5

San Francisco, musical sand at 32

Sand, musical 28

Santa Barbara, musical sand at 31

Saurothera bahamensis 52

Sciurus aurocapillus 52

Sea garden 5

Section of Astronomy . . . , 67

Ethnology 100

Selkirk Mountains 61

Sky Line Mine 63

Specimens, collecting 83

Spokane Mine 63

Sporadinus ricordi 52

Springs, warm 64

Standing committees 103

Star magnitudes 117

places, calculation of 86

plates, Rutherford 102

Starch, estimation by Von

Asboth's method 24

Stellar photometry 117

Stone age 109

age tools 110

Stone tools, manufacture of . . 110
Subsidence and elevation, evi-
dences of 18

Subscribers to the Building

Fund Supplement

Surface deposits 8

Swash 6

Sweet Grass Hills 57

Theories of musical sand 33

Transactions, price of 1

Trinomialism 81

126

INDEX.

PAGE

U. S. Eclipse expedition to

South Africa. 2

Vegetation, effects of, on the

surface 14

Von Asboth's method for esti-
mating starch ... 24

PAGE

Warm springs 64

Winnebago arts 89

Wood, phosphorescent 37

Zincs, new form for Bunsen

batteries 1 14

Charter, Order of Court, Constitution
and By-Laws.

CHARTER.

AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE

LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK.

Passed April ■mh,imS.

WHERE#lS, The members of the Lyceum of Natural History
have petitioned for an act of incorporation, and the Legislature, im-
pressed with the importance of the study of Natural History, as
connected with the wants, the comforts, and the happiness of man-
kind, and conceiving it their duty to encourage all laudable
attempts to promote the pi'ogress of science in this State — therefore,

Be it enacted by the People of the State of Neiv York, repre-
sented in Senate and Assembly, That Samuel L. Mitchill. Casper
W. Eddy, Frederick C. SchaefFer, Nathaniel Paulding, William
Cooper, Benjamin P. Kissam, John Torrey, William Cumberland,
D'Jurco V. Knevels, James Clements, and James Pierce, and such
other persons as now are, and may from time to time become mem-
bers, shall be, and hereby are, constituted a body corporate and
politic, by the name of Lyceum op Natural History in the
City of New York, and that by that name they shall have per-
petual succession, and shall be persons capable of suing and being
sued, pleading and being impleaded, answering and being answered
vmto, defending and being defended, in all courts and places what-
soever; and may have a common seal, with power to alter the same

2 CHARTER.

from time to time; and sliall be capable of purchasing, taking,
holding, and enjoying, to them and their successors, any real estate
in fee simple or otherwise, and any goods, chattels, and personal
estate, and of selling, leasing, or otherwise disposing of said real
or personal estate, or any part thereof, at their will and pleasure:
Provided always, that the clear annual value or income of such
real or personal estate shall not exceed the sum of five thousand dol-
lars: Provided, however, that the funds of the said corpoi^ation
sliall be used and approj)riated to the promotion of the objects stated
in the preamble to this act, and those only.

2. And he it further enacted, That the said Society shall, from
time to time, forever hereafter, have power to make, constitute,
ordain, and establish such by-laws and regulations as they shall
judge proper, for the election of their officers; for prescribing their
respective functions, and the mode of discharging the same ; for the
admission of new members ; for the government of the officers and
members thereof; for collecting annual contributions from the
members towards the funds thereof ; for regulating the times and
places of meeting of the said Society ; for suspending or expelling
such members as shall neglect or refuse to comply with the by-laws
or regulations, and for the managing or directing the affairs and
concerns of the said Society : Provided such by-laws and I'egulations
be not repugnant to the Constitution and laws of this State or of
the United States,

3. And he it further enacted, That the officers of the said Society
shall consist of a President and two Vice-Presidents, a Correspond-
ing Secretary, a Recording Secretary, a Treasui-er, and five Cura-
tors, and such other officers as the Society may judge necessary ;
who shall be annually chosen, and who shall continue in office for
one year, or until others be elected in their stead ; that if the annual
election shall not be held at any of the days for that purpose ap-
pointed, it shall be lawful to make such election at any other day;
and that five members of the said Society, assembling at the place
and time designated for that purpose by any by-law or regulation
of the Society, shall constitute a legal meeting thereof.

4. And he it further enacted. That Samuel L. Mitchill shall be
the President ; Casper W. Eddy the First Vice-President ; Frederick
C. Schaeffer the Second Vice-President ; Nathaniel Paulding, Cor-
responding Secretary ; William Cooper, Recording Secretary ; Ben-
jamin P. Kissam, Treasurer, and John Toi'rey, William Cumber-
land, D'Jurco V. Knevels, .James Clements, and James Pierce,
Curators; severally to be the first officers of the said corporation,

ORDER OF COURT. 3

who shall hold their respective offices until the twenty- third day of
February next, and until others shall be chosen in their places.

5. And be it farther enacted, That the present Constitution of
the said Association shall, after passing of this Act, continue to be
the Constitution thereof; and that no alteration shall be made
therein, unless by a vote to that effect of three-fourths of the resi-
dent members, and upon the request in writing of one-third of such
resident members, and submitted at least one month before any
vote shall be taken thereupon.

State of Neiv YorJc, Secretary's Office.

I CERTIFY the preceding to be a true copy of an original Act of
the Legislature of this State, on file in this Office.

ARCH'D CAMPBELL,

Albany, April 2dth, 1818.

Dep. Sec'y.

ORDER OF COURT.

ORDER OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

TO CHANGE THE NAME OF

THE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE
CITY OF NEW YORK

TO

THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

W^HEREAS, in pursuance of the vote and proceedings of this Cor-
poration to change the corporate name thereof from " The Lyceum
of Natural History in the City of New York " to "The New York
Academy of Sciences,'' which vote and proceedings appear of
recoi'd, an application has been made in behalf of said Corporation
to the Supreme Court of the State of New York to legalize and
authorize such change, according to the statute in such case pro-
vided, by Chittenden & Hubbard, acting as the attorneys of the
Corporation, and the said Supi'eme Court, on the 5th day of Janu-
ary, 1876, made the following order upon such application in the
premises, viz. :

4 ORDER OF COURT.

At a Special Term of the Supreme
Court of the State of New York,
held at the Chamhers thereof, in
the County Court House, in the
City of New York, the 5th day of
January, 1876 :

Present— Hon. George C. Barrett, Justice.

In the matter of the applica- ]
tion of the Lyceum of Nat- j
ural History in the City of 1
New York to authorize it to I
. assume the corpoi-ate name
of The New Y^ork Academy
■of Sciences. J

'On reading and filing the petition of the Lyceum of Natural His-
tory in the City of New York, duly verified by John S. Newberry,
the President and chief officer of said Corporation, to authorize it
.to assume the corporate name of The New Y^'ork Academj- of Sci-
ences, duly setting forth the grounds of the said application, and on
reading and filing the affidavit of Geo. W. Quackenbush, showing
that notice of such application had been duly published for six
weeks in the State paper, to wit. The Albany Evening Journah and
the affidavit of David S. Owen, showing that notice of such appli-
cation had also been duly published in the proper newspaper of the
County of New Y^ork, in which county said Corporation has its
business office, to w\i, in the Daily Register, by which it appears to
my satisfaction that such notice has been so published, and on read-
ing and filing the affidavits of Robert H. Browune and J. S. New-
berry, thereunto annexed, by which it appears to my satisfaction
that the application is made in pursuance of a I'esolution of the
.managers of said Corporation to that end named, and there appear-
ing to vae to be no reasonable objection to said Corporation so chang-
ing its name, as prayed in said petition : Now, on motion of Gros-
venor S. Hubbard, of Counsel for Petitioner, it is

Ordered, That the Lyceum of Natural History in the City of New
York be and is hereby authorized to assume the corporate name of
The New York Academy of Sciences.

Indorsed: Filed January 5, 1876.

A copy. WM. W\LSH, Clerk.

ORDER OF COURT. 5

Resolution of The Academy, accepting the order of the Court,
passed February 21, 1876.

And whereas, The order hatli been published as therein required,
and all the pi'oceedings necessary to carry out the same have been
had, Therefore:

Resolved, That the foregoing order be and the same is hereby ac-
cepted and adopted by this Corporation, and that in conformity
therewith the corporate name thereof, from and after the adoption
of the vote and resolution hereinabove referred to, be and the same
is hereby declared to be

THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

CONSTITUTION.

ARTICLE I.

This Society shall be styled The New York Academy of Sci-
ences.

ARTICLE n.

It shall consist of four classes of members, namely: resident
members, corresponding members, honorary members, and fel-
lows. Resident members shall be such as live in or near the
City of New York; corresponding members, such as reside at a
distance from said city; and honorary members, such as may be
judged worthy, from their attainments in science, to be ad-
mitted into the Academy. The number of honorary members
shall not exceed fifty. Fellows shall be chosen from among
the resident members, in virtue of scientific attainments or ser-
vices.

ARTICLE III.

All fellows and members shall be elected by ballot. The
names of candidates shall be proposed in writing, at least two
meetings previous to being balloted for. The aflirmative votes
of three-fourths of the fellows and members present shall be
necessary to elect a candidate; honorary or corresponding mem-
bers, however, may be elected without previous notice, provided
that the ballot on such election is unanimous.

ARTICLE IV.

None but fellows or resident members shall be entitled to vote

in the Academv.

ARTICLE V.

No fellow or member who shall be in arrears for one year shall
be entitled to vote or be eligible to any office in the Academy.

CONSTITUTION. 7

ARTICLE VI.

The officers of the Academy shall consist of a president,a first
and second vice-president, a corresponding secretary, a record-
ing secretary, a treasurer, five curators, and a librarian, who
shall be chosen annually on the fourth Monday in February/
The president, vice-presidents, and secretaries shall be fellows.
There shall also be elected, at the same time, a finance commit-
tee of three.

ARTICLE VIL

There shall be elected at the annual meeting six members, at
least three of whom shall be fellows, who, together with the
president, the vice-president, the two secretaries, and the trea-
surer, shall constitute a Council, by whom all business, to be
brought before the Academy, shall ordinarily be prepared.
Vacancies occurring in the offices or in the Coiancil of the
Academy in the interval between the annual elections, may be
filled for the unexpired term by special election at any regular
business meeting, provided notice of such election shall have
been given at a previous regular business meeting.

ARTICLE VIII.

The election of officers and of the Council shall be by ballot,
and the candidates having the greatest number of votes shall be
declared duly elected.

ARTICLE IX.

Five members at an ordinary meeting shall form a quorum,
and ten at a special or business meeting, a majority of whom,
in either case, shall be fellows.

ARTICLE X.

By-laws for the further regulation of the Society may from
time to time be made.

See eighth liae of Section 3 of the Charter.

8 CONSTITUTIOlSr,

AETICLE XL

' No alteration shall be made in this Constitution, unless by
a vote to that effect of three-fourths of the fellows and three-
fourths of the resident members entitled to vote under Arti-
cle V.

' This clause must be taken in connection with Section 5 of the Char-
ter, which requires a previous request in writing of one-third of ail the
resident members (which must be considered in this case as including
fellows, as that class of members was not in existence at the time the
Charter was granted), submitted one month previous to any vote being
taken.

•••<*<^S$^C*^i§^^^;gi3;i^%H<?^---"--

BY-LAWS.

Chapter l.—Of Members and Fellows.

1. Persons elected to resident membership shall pay their initiation
fees within three months from date of election, or said election shall
be void. No member in arrears shall be eligible as a fellow.

2. A resident member or fellow removing from the city, and not
in arrears, may become a corresponding' member; and a corre-
sponding member who removes to the city may become a resident
member on paying' the initiation fee. The Recording- and Corre-
sponding- Secretaries shall have power to arrange the transfer, and
shall notify the Treasurer.

3. Only persons engaged in the pursuit of some branch of science
shall be eligible to corresponding membership.

Chapter II. — Of Original Subscriptions.

1. Every holder (whetlier original subscriber, transferee, or lega-
tee) of a receipt for the sum of one hundred dollars, paid into the
treasury of the New York Lyceum of Natural History towards the
liquidation of the debt incurred by the erecting of the building
formerly the property of the Lyceum, in Broadway, in this city,
shall be entitled for himself and his family to free admission to such
public lectaves as may be delivered on its behalf, which the members
have a right to attend. He shall be entitled to the use of the books
of the Library, in accordance with the regulations of the Academy.

Chapter III. — Of Patrons and Life- Members.

1. Any person, by contributing, at one time, two hundred and
fifty dollars to the fund for the general purposes of the Academy,
becomes a patron, and shall, during life, be entitled to the same
privileges as an original subsci'iber, and shall be entitled to one
copy of all the publications of the Academy appearing subsequent
to the date of the payment.

10 BY-LAWS.

2. Any resident member may become a life-member by contribut-
ing', at one time, one hundred dollars toward the fund for the gene-
ral purposes of the Academy, and shall thereafter be exempt from
annual dues, and shall be entitled to one copy of all the publica-
tions of the Academy issued subsequent to date of the payment.

3. All contributions received under the provisions of this Chapter
shall be invested in the same manner as the ijublication fund ; the
income derived therefrom shall be applied to the general purposes
of the Academy.

Chapter IV. — Of Officers.

1. Tbe President, or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presidents,
•or, in their absence, a Chairman jiro tempore., shall preside at all
meetings of the Academy, and shall have a casting vote. He shall
appoint all committees authorized by the Academy, unless other-
wise specially ordered.

2. The Corresponding Secretary shall be charged with the corre-
spondence of the Academy. He shall keep a record of the corre-
sponding members; shall notify corresponding and honorary mem-
bers of their election; and shall report to the Academy on the
fourth Monday of Februaiy, annually, the state of its cori'espon-
dence.

3. The Recording Secretary shall be present at the meetings of the
Academy, and shall keep a record of the proceedings thereof. He
shall have charge of all papers and documents belonging to the
Academy ; shall keep a corrected list of members and fellows ; shall
-send to resident members and fellows announcements of the meet-
ings of the Academy ; shall notify all resident members and fellows
of their election, and committees of their appointment; shall give
notice to the Treasurer and to the Council of matters requiring their
action ; and shall bring before the Academy business presented by
the Council. He may employ an Assistant at a salary to be de-
termined by the Council.

4. The Treasui-er shall have charge of all moneys belonging to
the Academy, and, under direction of the Council, of their invest-
ment. He shall collect initiation fees and annual dues from all
members and fellows, all subscriptions made in behalf of the Aca-
demy, and any income that may accrue from property belong-
ing to the institution ; shall report to the Council meeting in Jan-
uary the names of members in arrears; shall keep the property
of the Academy insured, and pay all debts against the Academy the
■discharge of which shall be ordered by the Council. He shall re-

BY-LAWS. 11

port to the Council from time to time the state of the finances, and
to the Academy, on the fourth Monday of February, the receipts and
expenditures of the entire year.

5. The Librarian shall have immediate supervision and care of
the Library, under the general authority of the Library Committee
of the Council, and shall conduct all correspondence respecting the
exchanges of the Academy. On the fourth Monday in February
he shall make an Annual Report on the condition of the Library.

6. The Curators shall be assigned to their respective duties by the
Council.

Chapter Y.— Of the Council.

1. The President, Vice-Presidents, and Secretai'ies of the Academy
shall hold the same oflfices in the Council.

2. The Council shall meet at least once a month, preceding the
regular business meeting of the Academy. Minutes shall be kept
of its proceedings by the Recording Secretary.

3. Five members of the Council, a majority of whom shall be
fellows, shall constitute a quorum; but business may be transacted
at a regularly called meeting of the Council at which less than a
quorum is present, subject to the written approval of a majority of
the Council, subsequently given to the Secretary, and recorded by
him with the minutes.

4. Tlie Council shall transact all business referred to it by the
Academy, and prepare any other business at its discretion.

5. The Council shall organize within itself a Committee on Nomi-
nations, a Committee on Publication, and a Committee on the Li-
brary, to whom, in the intervals of the meetings of the Council, all
matters pertaining to these several subjects shall be referred. Their
action shall always be subject to the revision of the Council.

Chapter YI. — Of the Finance Committee.

1. The Finance Committee shall have the duties and powers of a
Committee of Ways and Means. They shall audit the annual re-
port of the Treasurer, and shall report on financial questions referred
to them, whenever called upon to do so by the Academy or by

the Council.

Chapter VII. — Of Sections.

1. Sections of special branches of science may be established or
abolished by the Academy upon the recommendation of the Council
and one month's notice.

2. Sections shall be organized with at least a Chairman and a

12 BY-LAWS.

Secretai'y, and these officers may take charge of the meeting of their
section during the presentation of its scientific business.

Chapter VIIL— 0/ Initiation Fees, Annual Dues, etc.

1. Every resident member, within three months after his election,
shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars. All members who be-
come fellows shall pay a fellowship fee of ten dollars. The an-
nual dues of resident members and fellows shall be ten dollars.

2. Honorary and corresponding members, and patrons, as well as
any resident member or fellow coming under the provisions of
Chapter II., shall be exempt from ijiitiation fees and annual dues.

3. The Academy may, on account of services, exempt any mem-
ber or fellow from his annual dues, provided the proposal be made
at a regular business meeting, be approved by the Council, lie over
until the next regular business meeting, and all the members then
present agree thereto.

4. If any resident member or fellow, in ai^rears for his annual
dues for over one year, shall neglect or refuse to pay the same
within three months after notification by the Treasurer, his name
may be erased from the rolls by a two-thirds vote of the Council.

Chapter IX. — Of the Publications and Publicatioti Fund.

1. The publications of the Academy shall consist of the Annals
and the Transactions, and such other documents as shall be ordered
by the Council ; they shall be issued under the supervision of Edi-
tors appointed by the Council, aided by the Committee of Publica-
tion. One copy of these publications shall be furnished free to
each resident member and fellow not in arrears of dues more than
six months.

2. Conti'ibutions may be received towards establishing a Publica-
tion Fund ; all such contributions shall be invested in United States
or in New York State securities, or in first mortgages on New York
and Brooklyn real estate, provided they shall not exceed sixty -five
per cent of the value of the property ; and the income thei'eof shall
be applied toward defraying the expenses of the scientific publica-
tions of the Academy.

3. Non-members and corresponding members contributing to the
Publication Fund one hundred dollars Oi' more, at onetime, shall be
entitled to one copy of all the scientific publications of the Aca-
demy appearing subsequently to the dates of the payment of their
contributions.

BY-LAWS. 13

Chapter X. — Of the Library.

1. Tlie Library shall l)e under the control of the Librarian and
the Library Committee.

2. No book shall be removed without consent of the Librarian,
who shall keep a record of books loaned.

3. Not more than two works at one time may be loaned to one
member or fellow without special permission from the Council.

4. On the first Monday in June, all books shall be called in : and
the Library Committee shall examine the Library, and compare it
Avith the catalogue. They shall note all missing- books, and report
the same, at the next meeting-, to the Academy.

Chapter XL — Of Meetings.

1. The oi'dinary meetings shall beheld on Monday evenings in
each month from the first of October to the beginning of June.

2. The Council may call a special meeting, provided a notice be
sent to each resident meniber and fellow, stating the time at which
such meeting is to be held, and the object for which it is called.

3. The meeting held on the fourth Monday in February shall be
considered a special business meeting.

Chapter XII. — Of Business.

1. All business other than such as relates immediately to the cul-
tivation of science shall be transacted at the fii'st meeting of each
month only, except when the Council shall report it as urgent.

2. The following shall be considered tlie regular order of proce-
dure at the ordinary meetings:

1. Reading the minutes.

2. Reports of committees.
8. Exhibition of specimens.

4. Presentation and discussion of papers previously an-

nounced.

5. Any othei' scientific communications.

3. The following shall be considered the order of procedure at
the reg-ular busmess meetings :

1. Reading the minutes of the preceding business meeting-.

2. Report of the Council.

3. Reports of Officers.

4. Reports of Committees.

5. Elections.

14 BY-LAWS.

6. Deferred business.

7. New business.

8. Scientific communications.

4. The Rules of Order as set forth in " Cushing's Manual of Par-
liamentary Practice '" shall be accepted as authoritative in the meet-
ings of the Academy.

Chapter XIII.— O/" Elections.

■ 1. The Annual Elections shall be conducted as follows:
Nominations may be sent in writing to the Recording Secretary,
with the names of the proposers, at any time not less than thirty
days before the Annual Meeting ; and the Council shall prepare,
from the names so propos3d, a list which shall constitute the regular
ticket. This list shall be furnished to every resident member and
fellow at least two weeks before the Annual Election. But any
resident member or fellow shall be at liberty to alter this list, or to
prepare another.

The election of officers and Councillors shall be by ballot. A list
of the persons who have received the greatest number of votes of
those present, certified by the tellers, shall then be presented by
them to the presiding officer, who shall thereupon declare the said
persons elected to their respective offices, and shall present the list
to the Recording Secretai^y, who shall enter it on the minutes.

2. Resident and corresponding members shall be elected as fol-
lows : The candidates shall be proposed publicly, in writing, at any
meeting, by a fellow or member; and the nominations, together
with the name of the person making them, shall be referred to the
Council ; if approved by the Council, the candidates may be elected
by ballot at any succeeding business meeting, observing always
the provisions of Article III. of the Constitution.

3. Fellows shall be elected as follows: Candidates shall be re-
commended to the Council in writing, with the reasons for such
recommendation, signed by the proposer; then the Council may
publicly nominate them at a regular business meeting. They shall
be balloted for at any succeeding business meeting, in the same
manner as resident members.

4. Names of candidates for honorary membei'ship shall be pre-
sented by the Council, and they shall be balloted for at a regular
business meeting; a three-fourths vote of the members and fellows
present being required to elect.

BY-LAWS. 15

Chapter XIV. — Of General Provisions.

1. No expenditure shall be made on behalf of the Academy, un-
less authorized by a vote of the Council.

2. All bills submitted to the Council must be approved by the
officers incurring them.

3. Any member or fellow may be censured, suspended, or expelled,
for violation of the Constitution or By-Laws, or for any other of-
fence deemed sufficient, by a vote of three-fourths of the members
and three-fourths of the fellows present at any regular business
meeting; provided that such action shall have been recommended
by the Council at a regular business meeting, and one month's no-
tice of such recommendation, and of the offence charged, shall have
been given the member accused.

4. No alteration shall be made in these By-Laws, unless such al-
tei'ation be submitted publicly in writing, at a regular business
meeting, be entered on the minutes with the names of the members
or fellows proposing the same, and be adopted by two-thirds of the
members and two-thirds of the fellows present at a subsequent regu-
lar business meeting.

-ooo<^^>o^<^S>^«<;|p00o»

PATRONS OF THE ACADEMY/

[Those marked with an asterisk are deceased.]

* Bland, Thomas,

Bolton, Prof. H. Oarringtou,

* Brevoort, J. Carson,
Casey, Thomas L., U. S. A.
Cotheal, Alex. J.,

* Delafield, Joseph,
*Dinwiddie, Eobert,
Dodge, William E.,
Egleston, Prof. Thos.,
*Elsberg, L., M.D.,
Field, 0. de Peyster,
•Greene, J. W., M.D.,
•Grinnell, Geo. B.,
Hinton, John H., M.D.,
Lawrence, Geo. N.,

* Wolfe, Miss

Leeds, Prof. Albert R.,

* Lenox, James,

* Livingston, Robert J.,
Newberry, J. S., M.D.,
Prime, Frederick E.,
Prime, Temjile,
Sloan, Samuel,
Steward, D. Jackson,

* Storrs, Charles,

* Stuart, Robert L.,
*Suckley, Geo., M.D.,

* Van Nostrand, H. D.,

* Van Rensselaer, Alex.,
Weston, Henry,

* Wheatley, Charles M.,
Catherine L.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE PUBLICATION

FUND.^

[Tliose marked with an asterisk are deceased.]

Amend, Bernard G.,
American Bank Note Co., A.

D. Shepard, Vice-Prest.,
Chamberlain, W. L.,
Coddington, T. B.,
Collingwood, F.,

* Crosby, Rev, Howard,
Dodge, Wm. E.,
*Elsberg, L., M.D.,
Herrman, Mrs. H.,
Hildenbrand, W.,
Hoe, Henry,

' See By-laws, Chapter III., and Chapter VIII. Section 2.
" See By-laws, Chapter IX.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE PUBLICATION FUND. 17

Jnlien, Alexis A., Kedfield, John H.,

Krotel, Kev. G. F., * Reinhart, B. F.,

Lawrence, Geo. N., Schuyler, Philip,

Le Comte, Joseph, * Stengel, Prof. Fred.,

* Lenox, James, Steward, D. Jackson,

Lord, Franklin B. , * Stuart, Robert L.,

Prime, Temple, Van Beuren, Fred. T.,

Pyne, Percy R., Waller, Elwyn,

Newberry, J. S., M.D., Weston, Edward W.,

* Wolfe, John D.

~ -<^'^^;if:^?i'^J^-^fi^2i<^^^;f^:^^S^

RESIDENT FELLOWS AND MEMBERS.

[Fellows in italic ; Resident Members in roman.]
P, Patrons. S, Subscribers to Building Fund.

ELECTED

1878 Abbott, Frank, M.D., 22 West 40th Street.

1874 Alleji, Prof. J. A.. American Museum of Natural History.

1867 Allen, T. F., M.D., 10 East 36th Street.

1866 Amend, B. G., 120 East 19th Street.

1880 Arnold, E. 8. F., M.D., 11 West 34th Street.

1886 Atterbury, Rev. Anson P., 117 West 87th Street.

1868 Bailey, James M., 77 Madison Avenue.
Banks, David S., 267 Fifth Avenue.

1871 Beach, Alfred E.. 361 Broadway.

1868 Beck, Fanning C. T., 78 East 56th Street.
1878 Bernacki, Charles, M.D., 36 West 28th Street.

1873 Bickmore, Prof. A. S.. Amer. Museum of Natural History.

1876 Bien, Julius, 139 Duane Street.
1878 Biggs, Charles, 610 Broadway.

1867 Bulton, H. Carrington, Ph.D., University Club, P.
1885 Bonnett, Chas. P., Elizabeth, N. J.

1880 Britton, N. L., Ph.D., Columbia College.

1887 Broiun, Hon. Addison, 233 East 48th Street.

1869 Browneli, Silas B., 322 West 56th Street.
Brownne, John S., 17 West 43d Street.

1888 Brush, Prof. Chas. B., 319 West 56th Street.

1887 Casey, Capi. TJiomas L., Army Building, Whitehall St., P.

1869 Castoell, John H., 11 West 48th Street.

1865 Chandler, Prof. CArtr/e.§ ^., Columbia College. ■

1887 Cheney, Alfred C, Garfield Nat. Bank, 23d St. & 6th Ave.

1874 Chittenden, L. E., 49 East 65th Street.

1888 Church, Benjamin S., 54 West 12th Street.

1877 Close, S. L., M.D., 48 East 31st Street.

RESIDENT FELLOWS AND MEMBERS. 19

ELECTED

1883 Colby, Charles E., Columbia College.

1871 CoUingiuoocl, Francis, C.E., Elizabeth, N. J.
1889 Congdon, Ernest A., 31 Broadway.

1869 Conklin, W. A., Arsenal Building, Central Park.
1876 Conkling, Alfred E., 27 East Tenth Street.

1887 Constant, S. Victor, 405 West 21st Street.

1867 Cooper, Hon. Edward, 12 Washington Square.

1889 Corning, Jasper E., 69 E. 54th Street.

1847 Cotheal, Alexander J., 62 West 36th Street, P.
:876 Cox, Charles F., 100 East 17th Street.
• 1867 Croohe, John J., 165 Mulberry Street.

1868 Daly, Hon. Charles P., 84 Clinton Place.

1876 Davies, William G., 32 Nassau Street.

1868 Day, Prof. Edward H., 1187 Lexington Avenue.

1888 Dean, Bashford, Ph.D., College of the City of New York.

1877 Dederick, E. H., 18 Maiden Lane.
1882 Devoe, Frederick W., P. 0. Box 460.

1884 Dewitt, William G., 88 Nassau Street.

1880 Diehl, Mrs. Anna Eandall, 56 West 55th Street.

1878 Dittenhoefer, A. J., 96 Broadway (Room 140).
1877 Dix, Eev. Morgan, D.D., 27 West 25th Street.
1867 Dodge, William E., 262 Madison Avenue, P.

1876 Doremus, Charles A., Ph.D., 92 Lexington Avenue.
1867 Doremus, Prof. R. Ogden, M.D., 241 Madison Avenue.

1881 Douglass, Andrew E., 9 East 54th Street.

1890 Dow, Lorenzo, 180 West 59th Street.

1877 Drummond, Isaac W., 101 Horatio Street.

1872 Drummond, James F., 436 West 22d Street.
1876 Du Bois, Eugene, 23 Park Eow.

1884 Dudley, Henry, 56 West 57th Street.

1884 Dudley, P. H. (Room 21) Grand Central Station.

1890 Dunham, E. K., 53 East 30th Street.

1888 Dwight, Jonathan, Jr., 2 East 34th Street.

1888 Edison, Thomas A., Orange, N. J.

1861 Egleston, Prof. Thomas, 35 West Washington Square, P,

20 RESIDENT FKLLOWS AND MEMBERS.

ELECTED

1885 Elseffer, William L., C.E., 18 Broadway.
1891 English, Geo. L., 733 Broadway.
1890 Eyerman, John, Easton, Pa.

1878 Fargo, James C, 56 Park Avenue.

1888 Farrar, Dr. John N., 1271 Broadway.

1869 Field, C. de Peyster, 21 East 26th Street, P.

1881 Fischer, Charles S., Jr., M.D., 110 West 128th Street.

1864 Fish, Hon. Hamilton, 251 East 17th Street, S.

1889 Fiske, Thomas Scott, Columbia College.
Friedrich, James J., M.D., 124 East 59th Street.

1890 Garrettson, Francis T., 26 Broad Street.

1889 Gibson, W. W., P. 0. Box 1449, New York City.

1890 Goldschmidt, S. A., Ph.D., 12 East 58th Street.
Gould, George, 1 East 47th Street.

1867 Gouley, J. W. S., M.D., 324 Madison Avenue.

1884 Gratacap, Louis P., American Museum-of Natural History.

1865 Green, Hon. Andrew H., 214 Broadway.

1890 Greene, Dr. Jeannette B., 56 West 55th Street.
1871 Grinuell, George B., 41 Park Row, P.

1869 Hale, Albert W., 280 Broadway.

1888 Hall, Prof. Robert W., 712 Fifth Avenue.

1881 Hamilton, Rev. Samuel M., 62 West 11th Street.

1878" Hartt, James C, 21 Cortlandt Street.

1881 Hascall, Mrs. Virginia K., 110 East 16th Street.

1876 Has well, Charles H., 42 Broadway.

1880 Heineman, Henry N., M.D., 49 West 57th Street.

1888 Henderson, John C, care of R. B. Poole, 108 W. 40th St.

1881 Herrman, Mrs. Esther, 59 West 56th Street, P.

1868 Hewitt, Hon. Ahram S., 9 Lexington Avenue.
1890 Higgins, J. Foster, 50 Wall Street.

1877 Hildenbrand, William, 222 West 24th Street.
1876 Hildreth, D. M., 48 Irving Place.

1865 Hinton, John H, M.D., 41 West 32d Street, P.
1881 Hitchcock, Miss F. R. M., Hotel Beresford, 81st Street,
Central Park West.

RESIDENT FELLOWS AND MEMBERS. 21

ELECTED

1881 Hitchcock, Hiram, Fifth Avenue Hotel.

1886 Holbrook, Levi, 128 West 59tli Street.
1878 Hoe, Henry, 91 John Street.

Hooper, Prof. Franklin W., 71 St. James Place, Brooklyn.
1878 Hoyt, Alfred M., 1 Broadway.
1874 Hubbard, Prof. 0. P., M.D., 65 West 19th Street.
1876 Hubbard, Walter C, 27 West Ninth Street.
1881 Hyde, E. Francis, 54 Wall Street.

1876 Ireland, John B., 170 Broadway.

1867 Jacobi, Abram, 3LD., 110 West 34th Street.

1887 Jacobijs L. H., Columbia College.
1876 James. D. Willis, 40 East 39th Street.
1836 Jay, Hon. John, 242 East 15th Street, S.
1878 Jay, John C, M.D., 17 West 46th Street, S.

1867 Julien, Alexis A., Ph.D., Columbia College.

1884 Ketchum, Mrs. A. C, 19 Lafayette Place.

1878 Kimber, Rev. Arthur C, 105 East Houston Street.

1878 King, Prof. Clarence, Brevoort House.

1876 Kunz, George. F., Hoboken, N. J.

1884 Lamborn, R. H., Ph.D., care of Mexican Nat. R. R. Co.,

32 Nassau Street.

1890 Lamb, Osborn R., 356 West 22d Street.
1881 Laudy. Louis IL, Ph.D., Columbia College.

Law, Walter W., Grolier Club, 29 East 32d Street.
18*J5 Lawrence, George N., 45 East 21st Street, P.
1878 Le Comte, Joseph, 231 Front Street.

1888 Ledoux, Albert R , Ph.D., 39 West 50th Street.

1868 Lee, J. Lawrence, M.D., 21 West 17th Street.

1872 Leeds, Prof. A. R., Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N. J., P.

1872 Levison,Dr. W. GooId,'3U Livingston St., Brooklyn, N. Y.

1885 Lewis, W. H., Jr., 63 West 19th Street.

1869 Liautard, A., M.D., 141 West 54th Street.

1876 Lichtenstein. Paul, Cotton Exchange Building, N. Y.
Lindley, C. L., M.I)., 85 Madison Avenue.

22 RESIDENT FELLOWS AND MEMBERS.

ELECTED

1885 Lord, Benjamin, M.D., 34 West 28th Street.
1876 Low, Hon. Seth, Columbia College.

1878 Marble,, Manton, 532 Fifth Avenue.

1876 Marquand, Henry G., 11 East 6&th Street.

1868 Martin, Prof. Daniel S., 236 West Fourth Street.

1882 Martin, Edward W., 256 West 57th Street.

1881 Maynard, Prof. George W., 31 Nassau Street.

1875 McCarty, Edwin R., 246 West 58th Street.

1889 McClintoch, Emory, Mutual Life Lis. Co., N. Y.

1882 McDonald, John, 11 Pine Street.
1885 Mead, Walter H., 65 Wall Street, P.

Merrill, Fred. J. H., Ph.D., New York State Museum,
Albany, N. Y.

1876 Mitchell, Edward, 31 East 50th Street.
Mitchell, John Murray, 43 Wall Street.

1876 Moore, Gideon E., Ph.D., 221 Pearl Street.
1881 MorsCi J. H., 423 Madison Avenue.
1874 Mott, Henry A., Jr., Ph.D., 100 Broadway.
1878 Mulcahey, Rev. James, 65 Church Street.
1885 Munsell, C. E., Ph.D., 223 West 14th Street.

1852 Newlerry, Prof. J. S., M.D., Columbia College, P.

1871 Neioton, E. J., 128 West 43d Street.

1891 Niven, William, 741 Broadway.

1878 Nott, F. J., M.D., 522 Madison Avenue.

1878 Ottendorfer, Oswald, 7 East 17tli Street.

1879 Parmly, D. D., 160 Broadway.

1881 Parsons, William Barclay, Jr., 51 East 53d Street.

1888 Patten, John, caie of John Ryan Co., Baltimore, Md.

1879 Peabody, Hon. Charles A., 60 West 21st Street.

1883 Pellew, Charles E., 51 East 54th Street.
1878 Phelps, Hon. William W., 2 Wall Street.

1884 Pitkin, Lucius, Ph.D., 138 Pearl Street.

1885 Poggenhurg, Justus F., 439 East 57th Street.
1891 Post, C. A., 21 North Washington Square.

RESIDENT FELLOWS AND MEMBERS. 23

ELECTED

1877 Potter, Rt. Rev. Henry C, 160 West 59th Street.

1889 Potter, Orlando B., Potter Building, Park Row.

1890 Prentice, Charles F., 178 Broadway.
1864 Prime, F. E , 26 Broad Street, P.
1852 Prime, Temple, 26 Broad Street, P.
1890 Pupin, iM. I., Ph.D., 68 West 72d Street.

1878 Pyne, Percy R., 52 Wall Street.

1890 Quackenbos, Prof. -J. D., Columbia College.

Rawson, A. L., Broadway and 58tli Street.
1882 Rees, Prof. John K., Columbia College.
1876 Rice, Charles, Ph.D., Believue Hospital.
1871 RiclcetU, Pierre de P., Ph.D., Columbia College.
1888 Rickoff, Andrew J., LL.D., 40 West 59th Street.
1890 Riley, R. Hudson, 131 St. John's Place, Brooklyn.
1884 Ripley, John H., M.D., 605 Lexington Avenue.

1888 Roosevelt, Frank, 58 West 15th Street.

1887 Rushy, Henry H., M.D., 254 Clinton Ave., Newark, N. J.

1889 Rusby, John M., Jersey City Gas Works, Jersey City, K J.
1880 Russell, Wm. H., 21 West Tenth Street.

1864 Rutherford, Lewis M., 16 Exchange Place.

1864 Satterlee, F, Leroy, M.D., 21 West 19th Street.

1859 Satterlee, Livingston, 58 Cedar Street.

1867 Schermerhorn, F. A,, 61 University Place.

1875 Schoeney, L., M.D., 68 East 104th Street.

1888 Schoonmaker, W. D., 28 Warren Street. '
1878 Schulrz, Carl H., 440 First Avenue.

1876 Schuyler, Philip, 18 North Washington Square.

1876 Serrell, Lemuel W., 140 Nassau Street.
1878 Shriver, AYalter, 333 East 56th Street.

1877 Sieberg, W. H. J., 158 East 124th Street.

1890 Skeel, Dr. Frank D., 361 Mott Avenue.
1876 Sloan, Samuel, 26 Exchange Place, P.
1876 Smith, S. Hanhury, M.D., 309 Broadway.
1890 Smith, Sydney T., University Club.

1890 vStarr, Dr. Frederick, Amer. Museum of Natural History.

24 RESIDENT FELLOWS AND MEMBERS.

ELECTED

1882 Stevens, George F., M.D., 33 West 33d Street.

1882 Stevens, Prof. W. Le Conte, Packer Institute, Brooklyn.
1880 Stevenson, Prof. J. J., University of the City of New York
1858 Steward, D. Jackson, 20 Gramercy Park, P.

1868 Stuyvesant, Eutherfurd, 246 E. 15th Street.
1890 Sutro, Mrs. Matilda, 60 West 49th Street.

1890 Tatlock, John, Jr., P. 0. Box 194.

1876 Taylor, Charles Fayette, M.D., 201 West 54th Street.

1877 Taylor, Henry L., M.D., 201 West 54th Street.

1883 Terry, James, American Museum of Natural History.

1878 Todd, A. J., 261 Broadway.

Tows, C. D., 1326 19th Street, Washington, D. C.

1875 Trotter, Alfred W., 112 East 127th Street.
1878 Troivhridge, Prof. Wm. P., Columbia College.

1882 Valentini, Philip, Ph.D., 249 West 23d Street.

1880 Van Beuren, Fred. T., 21 West 14th Street.

1876 Van Brunt, Cornelius, 319 East 57th Street.

1878 Van Slyck, George W., 120 Broadway.
1890 Vulte, H. T., Ph.D., Columbia College.

1879 Wall, John L., 388 Sixth Avenue.

1871 Waller, Elivyn. Ph.D., Columbia College.

1888 Warren, Miss Lillie E., 239 West 21st Street.

18S8 Watson, B. A., 124 York Street, Jersey City, N. J.

1865 Weston, Henry, 31 Nassau Street, P.

1881 White, James H., 14 West 39th Street.

1879 Whitfield, Prof. R. P., Amer. Museum of Natural History.

1882 Wiechniann, Ferd. G.. PIi.D., Columbia College.

1876 Wiener, Joseph, M.D., 150 East 61st Street.
1878 Wood, Isaac F., Rah way, N. J.

1865 Wood, William H. S., 8 East 63d Street.

1869 Wurtz, Prof. Henry, 2142 Seventh Avenue.

1877 Youmans, William J., M.D.. 3 Bond Street.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

ELECTED

Abbe, Prof. Cleveland, Washington, D. C.

Abbott, Dr. Chas. C, Trenton, N. J 1883

d'Achiardi, Prof. Antonio, University of Pisa, Italy 1883

Adams, Rev. H. M., Gaboon, Africa 1854

Agassiz, Alexander, Cambridge, Mass. 1866

Alexander, Prof. W. D., Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands 1890

Am Ende, Dr. C. G., Hudson City, N. J 1874

Angas, Geo. French, London, England 1864

Appleton, Prof. John H., Providence, R. 1 1876

Archbald, Andrew, Paris, France 1852

Austen, Prof. Peter T., New Brunswick, N. J 1878

Ayres, Dr. W. O., New Haven, Conn 1864

Balch, Geo. T., New York, N. Y 1876

Ball, Prof. Valentine, Dublin, Ireland 1885

Barclay, Robert, England 1830

Bard, John, Tours, Fj-ance 1836

Batchelder, John M., Cambridge, Mass 1854

Bayle, Prof. E., Scliool of Mines, Paris, France 1868

Beadle, E. L., M.D., Poughkeepsie, N. Y 1835

Bechler, Lieut. W. H., Newport, R. 1 1880

Bell, J. Graham, Boston, Mass 1878

Bell, James H., Sandusky, 1836

Bennet, Rev. Cephas Tavoy, Burmah 1847

Berthoud, Edw. L., Golden City, Col 1867

Bertrand, Prof. Emile, Rue de Tournou, Paris, France 1883

Binney, W. G., Burlington, N. J 1857

Bishop, Nath. H., Lake George, N. Y 186'.)

Boissier, E., Geneva, Switzerland 1852

Bolles, Rev. E. C, Salem, Mass iS65

26 CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

ELECTED

Bolton, Dr. Meade, Riclnnond Hill, N. Y 1890'

Bombicci, Prof. Luigi, University of Bologna, Italy 1883

Boni, Giacomo, Venice, Italy 1886

Brandegee, Townsend S., Cailon City, Col 1874

Branner, Prof. J. C, Little Rock, Ark 1884

Brewster, Wm., Cambridge, Mass 1874

Brockett, L. P., M.D.. Hartford, Conn .' 1847

Brown, Rev. Samuel R., S.T.D., Yokohama, Japan 1859

Brunet, Dr. , Baliia, Brazil 1867

Brush, Prof. Geo. J., New Haven, Conn 1876

Buck, C. Elton, Wilmington, Del 1866

Caldwell, Prof. Geo. C, Ithaca, N. Y 1876

Carmichael, Prof. Henry, Boston, Mass . 1876

Cary, Prof. Albert A., Bridgeport, Conn 1890

Castelnau, Count, Paris, France 1839

Castillo, Prof. Antonio del, Mexico City, Mexico 1890

Chandler, Prof. W. H., Bethlehem, Pa 1876

Chapman, A. W., M.D., Apalachicola, Fla 1836

Chapman, Prof. E. .T., Toronto, Canada 1877

Chester, Prof. Albert H., Clinton, N. Y 1877

Christy, David, Baltimore, Md 1852

Clark, Thomas, Bristol, England 1827

Clarke, Prof. F. W., Washington, D. C 1876

Clay, Joseph A., Philadelphia, Pa 1857

Coliett, Prof. John, Indianapolis, Ind 1880

Comstock, Prof. Theo. B., Champaign, 111 1877

Cooke. Prof. Josiah P., Jr., Cambridge, Mass 1876

Cooke. Dr. M. C. , London, England 1868

Cooper, Dr. James G., Hay ward, Cal 1855

Cope, Prof. Edward D., Philadelphia, Pa 1876

Cornwall, Prof. H. B., Princeton, N. J 1876

Cory, Charles B., Boston, Mass 1880

Cox, Kenyon, Anaheim, Cal 1880

Crawford, Jos. A., Davenport, Iowa 1877

Credner, Prof. Hermann, Leipsic, Saxony 1866

Crosse, H. , Paris, France 1864

Dale, T. Nelson, Toronto, Canada 1879'

Dall, Prof. William H., Wasliington, D. C 1870

Dana, Arnold Guyot, Brooklyn, N. Y 1887

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 27

ELECTED

Dana, Prof. Edw. S., New Haven, Conn 1885

Deane, Euthven, Cambridge, Mass 1874

Denning-, W. H., Fishkill, N. Y 1832

Derby, Prof. Orville A., Rio Janeiro, Brazil 1890

Divine, Dr. S. R., Lake Sheldrake, N. Y 1867

Doubleday, Edward, Epping, England 1838

Douglass, Prof. Silas H., Ann Arbor, Mich 1876

Dow, Capt. John M., New York '. 1869

Drown, Prof. Thomas M., Boston, Mass 1876

Drummond, Prof. Henry, Glasgow, Scotland 1887

Dubois, Henry A., M.D., New Haven, Conn 1836

Duns, Prof. John, Edinburgh, Scotland 1868

Eaton, Prof. Daniel C, New Haven, Conn 1860

Edsall, Burroughs, Spuyten Duyvil, N. Y 1884

Edwards, Dr. Arthur M., Newark, N. J 1873

Elliot, Daniel G., New York City 1860

Elliot, Henry W., Washington, D. C 1876

Elliott, Prof. John B. , Sewanee, Tenn 1880

E»gelhardt, Dr. Francis E., Syracuse, N. Y 1869

Ernst, Dr. Adolfo, Caracas, Venezuela 1878

Fairbank, Rev. W., East Indies 1853

Fairchild, Prof. H. Le Roy, Rochester, N. Y 1879

Fay, H. F., Columbus, Ohio 185S

Fenzi, Cav. Sebastiano, Florence, Italy 1887

Fink, Albert, Louisville, Ky 1890

Fisher, Geo. Jackson, M.D., Sing Sing, N. Y 1845

Fittica, Prof. F., University of Marburg, Germany 1879

Fletcher, Prof. Lazarus, London, England 1885

Ford, Prof. Darius R., Elmira, N. Y 1874

Ford, Silas W., Schodack Landing, N. Y 1873

Fresenius, Prof. C. R., Wiesbaden, Germany ^ . 1879

Fritz-Gaertner, Dr. R., Tegucigalpa, Honduras 1879

Gadolin, Gen. Alex., St. Petersburg, Russia 1868

Gaussoin, E. , Baltimore, Md 1867

Gibbs, Prof. Wolcott, Cambridge, Mass 1840

Gilbert, G. K., Washington, D. C 1870

Gill, Dr Theodore, Washington, D. C 1858

Gilman, Pres. D. C, Baltimore, Md 187&

"28 CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

ELECTED

Girard, Charles, Paris, France 1*^52

Goessman. Prof. C. A.. Amherst, Mass 1865

Goocli, Prof. F. Austin, New Haven, Conn iJ^SS

Goode, Prof. G. Brown, Washington, D. C 1876

Gordon, Dr. Antonio de, Havana, Cuba 1883

Grattarola, Prof. Giuseppe, Florence, Italy 1883

Green, S. F., Jatt'na, Ceylon 1867

Greenleaf, R. C, Boston, Mass 1868

Gregg, Dr. Wm. H., Elmira, N. Y 1865

Gregorio, Marchese Antonio di, Palermo, Sicily 1883

Grierson, T. M. D., Dumfriesshire, Scotland 1865

Grote, Prof. Aug. P., Butfalo, N. Y 1876

Groth, Prof. Paul, University of Strassburg, Germany 1877

Gudeman. Dr. Edward, Philadelphia, Pa 1890

Gunning, Thos. B 1878

Guppy, R. J. L., Trinidad, W. 1 1861)

Hagen, Dr. Herman A.. Cambridge, Mass 1874

Hague, .Tames D., New York, N. Y 1874

Hamlin, Chas. E., Cambridge, Mass 1865

Hancock, D., Demerara, W. 1 1824

Hanley, Sylvanus, London, England 1864

Hardin, M. B., Lexington, Va 1866

Hartman, W. D., M.D., West Chester, Pa 1852

Hawkins, B. Waterhouse, London, England 1868

Hayes, S. Dana, Boston, Mass 1876

Henry, Charlton F., U.S.A 1853

Hen wood, W. Jory, Cornwall, England 1842

Hepburn, J. M., M.D.. Japan 1859

Hesse- Wartegg, Count Ernst von. New York 1882

Hexamer, Dr. F. M., New Rochelle, N. Y 1857

Hickock, W. C, A^ermont '• ■ 18^8

Hidden, Wm. Earl, Newark, N. J 1875

Hill. Prof. Henry B., Cambridge, Mass 1876

Himes, Prof. Charles F., Carlisle, Pa 1876

Hitchcock, Prof. Charles H.. Hanover, N. H 1867

Horsford, Prof. E. N., Cambridge, Mass •. 1876

Horton, Letas R., Goshen, N. Y 1864

Hoskold, Prof. H. D., Buenos Ayres, South America 1890

Howard, Thos. T., Jr., Perth Amboy, N. J 1877

CORRESPOJSTDING MEMBERS. 29

ELECTED

Hunt, Dr. T. Sterry, Boston, Mass 1867

Hyatt, Prof. Alpheus, Cambridge, Mass 1876

Hyatt, Prof. James, Stanfordville, N. Y 1876

lies, Malvern W., Denver, Col 1875

James, Major O. C, Rio Janeiro, Brazil 1867

Jamieson, Rev. J. M., Sabatha, India 1847

Jannetaz, Prof. A., College Sorbonne, Paris, France 1883

Jesup, Rev. Henry Griswold, Hanover, N. H 1885

Johnson, Prof. Sam'l W., New Haven, Conn 1876

Jordan, Pres. David S., Blooraington, Ind 1876

Judd, Orange, Middletown, Conn 1876

Kellicott, D. S., Buffalo, N. Y 1886

Kendrick, Prof. H. L., U.S.M.A., West Point, N. Y 1876

Kinney, Prof. J. R., Honolulu, Sandwich Islands 1867'

Knowlton, W. J., Boston, Mass 1880

Koenig, Prof. George A., Philadelphia, Pa 1876

Koltzoff-Massalsky, Princesse Helene, Florence, Italy 1887

Koschkull, H. von, Tiflis, Caucasus 1868

Krebs, H. J., Copenhagen, Denmark 1867

Krontschoff, Baron K. de, St. Petersburg, Russia 1890

Kuki, R., Tokio, Japan 1888

Kulibin, Prof. N., St. Peterslnirg, Russia 1890

Kulibin, Prof. S., St. Petersburg, Russia 1890

Lacerda, Antonio de, Bahia, Brazil 3867

Lacroix, Alfred, Paris, France 1890

Land, Wm. J., Atlanta, Ga 1877

Langley, Prof. J. W., Ann Arbor, Mich 1876

Lattimore, Prof. S. A., Rochester, N. Y 1876

Lauderdale, J. V., M.D., U.S.A 1867

Laussedat, Col., Paris, France 1890

Lea, M. Carey, Philadelphia, Pa 1876

Le Conte, Prof. Joseph, Berkeley, Cal 1876

Le Jolis, Dr. Auguste, Cherbourg, France 1876

Le Mercier, Dr. F . G. , Paris, France 1869

Lintner, Prof. J. A., Albany, N. Y 1872

Lockwood, Rev. Samuel, Freehold, N. J 1865

Lord, Henry B., Ithaca, N. Y 1868

30 CORRESPON^DING MEMBEHS.

ELECTED

Xiowe, Edward J., Nottingham, England 1857

Lupton, Prof. N. T., Nashville, Tenn 1876

Mackie, Simon F., Salt Lake City, Utah 1869

Macloskie, Prof. George, Princeton, N. J 1876

Mallet, Prof. John W., University of Virginia, Va 1876

Marcy, Prof. Oliver, N. W. University, Evanston, 111 1871

Marsh, Prof. O. C, New Haven, Conn 1867

Mason, Rev. Francis, Tavoy, Burmah ,. 1844

Matthew, Prof. George F., St. John, N. B .'. . . 1867

Maynard, C. J., Boston, Mass 1874

McChesney, Prof. J. H., Chicago, 111 1863

McCormick, Richard H., Arizona 1869

McMurtrie, W. C, M.D., Washington, D. C 1876

Mead, Theodore L., Eustis, Florida 1874

Meek, Prof. Seth E,, Cedar Rapids, Iowa 1888

Meneghini, Prof. G., Pisa, Italy 1888

Merriam, Prof. C. Hart, Washington, D. C 1874

Merrick, Prof. J. M., Boston, Ma.ss 1876

Metcalfe, William, London, England 1842

Meyer, Dr. A. B., Dresden, Germany 1890

Michie, Prof. P. S., West Point, N.Y 1885

Minot, Dr. Charles S., Boston, Mass 1878

Mixter, Prof. Wm. G., New Haven, Conn 1876

Moldenke, Richard G. G., Houghton, Mich 1890

Moore, Whitby E., Para, Brazil 1844

Morch, Otto, Copenhagen, Denmark 1864

Morong, Rev. Thomas, Ashland, Mass 1888

Morse, Prof. Edward S.. Salem, Mass 1864

Mortimer, Capt. John H., New York 1875

Nason, Prof. Henry B., Troy, N. Y 1876

Netto, Prof. Ladislau, Rio Janeiro, Brazil 1890

Nevius, Rev. Reuben D., Baker City, Oregon 1867

Newcombe, Wesley, M.D., Ithaca, N. Y , 1835

Newton, Prof, Alfred, Cambridge, England 1866

Nicholls, Dr. H. A. Alford, Dominica, W. 1 1882

Nicolis, Sig. Cav. Enrico, Verona. Italy 1884

Niles, Prof. Wm. H., Boston, Mass 1881

JSTolan, Dr. Edward J.. Philadelphia, Pa 1880

Nordenskjold, Prof. N. A. E., Stockholm, Sweden 1868

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 31

ELECTED

Ober, Frederick A., Beverly, Mass 1879

Oothout, Heni'v, Stamford, Conn 1865

Ordway, Prof. John M.. New Orleans, La 1876

Orton, Prof. Edward, Columbus, Ohio 1871

Ostensacken, Baron R , St. Petersburg, Russia 1857

Packard, Prof. A. S., Jr., Providence, R. 1 1866

Packard, R. L., Washington, D. C : 1877

Paine, Prof. John A., Tarrytown, N. Y 1877

Palmer, F. Temple, Versailles. France 1836

Parrott, Rev. Dr. J. W., Addison, Steuben County, N. Y 1869

Pecchioli, V., Pisa, Italy 1846

Peck, Thomas M., Grand Rapids, Mich 1853

Pbckham, Prof. S. F., Bristol, R. 1 1876

Perkins, Prof. Maurice F., Schenectady, N. Y 1876

Phene, Dr. J. S., London, England 1882

Pickering, Prof. Ed. C, Cambridge, Mass 1876

Piddington, Henry, Calcutta, India 1846

Pisani, F. , 8 Rue Furstenburg, Paris, France 1883

Poey, Prof. Andreas, Paris, France 1869

Post, Prof. George E. , Beirut, Syria 1888

Potter, Prof. W. B., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. . 1871

Prescott, Prof. Albert B., Ann Arbor, Mich 1876

Prime, Prof. Frederick, Jr., Easton, Pa 1877

Pumpelly, Prof. Raphael, Newport, R. 1 1868

Purdie, H. A., Boston, Mass 1874

Putnam, Prof. F. W., Cambridge, Mass 1860

Pynchon, Prof. Th. R., Hartford, Conn 1876

Ramsey, J. G., M.D., Tennessee 1860

Randall, F. A., Warren, Pa 1876

Rawson, Sir Rawson W., London, England 1867

Read, Matthew C, Hudson, Ohio 1876

Reade, T. Mellard, C.E., Liverpool, England 1888

Redfield, John H., Philadelphia, Pa 1836

Remsen, Prof. Ira, Baltimore, Md 1876

Ridgway, Robert, Washington, D. C 1874

Robb, Prof. Wm. Lispenard, Hartford, Conn 1886

Robertson, J., Atticus. N. Y 1864

Roemer, Charles F., Berlin, Prussia 1845

Roemer, Edward, M.D., Cassel, Germany 1864

32 corhespondixct members.

KLECTEO

Rogers, F. M., Luling P. O., Louisiana 1877

Rogers, Dr. Heury R., Dunkirk, N. Y 1S8^

Rosa, W. V. v., M.D., Watertown, N. Y 1866

Russell, Israel C, Washington, D. C 1879

Sadtler, Prof. Samuel P., Philadelphia, Pa 1876

Salvadori, T., M.D., Turin, Italy 1866

Saussure, H. de, Geneva, Switzerland 1856

Schaeffer, Prof. C. A., Ithaca, N. Y 1876

Schweitzer, Dr. Paul, University of Missoui'i, Columbia, Mo. . 1867

Sclater, Philip L. , London, England 1856

Scudder, Prof. Samuel H., Cambridge, Mass 1876-

Sherwood, Andrew, Mansfield. Pa .. . . . 1876

Sinclair, William, West Hoboken, N. J 1847

Skinner, Ezekiel, M.D., Liberia 1837

Slosson, Charles, Butt'alo, N. Y 1885

Smith, Charles E., Philadelphia, Pa 1866

Smith, J Bryant, Kingston, Jamaica, W. 1 1852

Smith, J. Ward, Newark, N. J 1883

Smith, Sanderson, Staten Island, N. Y 1854

Smith, T. L., M.D., U.S.N 1849

Sorby, Henry C, Sheffield, England 1858

Spang, Norman, Etna, Alleghany County, Pa 1876

Spencer, Rev. J. Selden, Tarrytown, N. Y 1890

Stearns, Robert E. C, Berkeley, Cal 1876

Stevens, Dr. Robert P., Brooklyn, N. Y 1875

Stillmau, Charles H., M.D., Plainfiekl N. J 1840

Stillman, J. B., M.D., Texas 1855

Stoebner, Prof. F. W., Westfield, Mass 1882

Storer, Prof. F. H., Jamaica Plain, Mass . . : 1876

Stout, A. A., M.D., U.S.N 1847

Stretch, Richaixl H., San Francisco, Cal 1865

Stuart, A. P. S., Lincoln, Neb 1876

Taber, Augustus, Westchester County, N. Y 1854

Tajore, The Maharajah Sowindho Mokun, Calcutta, India. . . . 1885

Taylor, Alexander S., California 1860

Thomson, James, Paris, France 1845

Thurston, Sir John, Gov. -General Fiji Islands 1887

Thurston, Prof. Robert H. , Ithaca, N. Y 1876

Thwing, Rev. Edward P., Brooklyn, N. Y 1885

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 33

ELECTED

Torrey, H. Gray, Stirling, N. J 1866

Trowbridge, Prof. Joliu, Cambridge, Mass 1877

Tryon, A. W., Philadelphia, Pa 1873

Tryon, G. W., Jr., Philadelphia, Pa 1864

Tuttle, Prof. D. K., Baltimore, Md 1876

Van Heurck, Henri, Antwerp, Belgium 1871

Verrill, Prof. A. E., New Haven, Conn 1867

Villa, Antonio, Milan, Italy 1846

Villa, J. B., Milan, Italy '. 1846

Vogdes, Capt. A. W., Fort Canby, Wash 1890

Volhard. Prof. Jakob, University of Munich, Germany 1879

Vollum, Dr. Edw. P., Jefferson Barracks, Mo 1880

Voss. Lothair, Berliburg, Prussia 1869

Waldo. Leonard. Bridgeport, Conn 1876

Ward, James W., Buii'alo, N. Y 1876

Ward, Prof. Henry A., Rochester, N. Y 1888

Warren, Rev. .Joseph, Allahabad. India .... 1848

Warring, Prof. Charles B., Poughkeepsie, N. Y 1876

W^ebber, Thomas, Kelley ville, Ireland 1887

Weissbach, Prof. A., Berg Akademie, Freiberg, Saxony 1883

Wheatland, Henry, M.D., Salem, Mass 1858

White, Rev. G. W. , Marietta, Ohio 1854

White, Prof. I. C. Morgantown, W. Va 1874

Williams, Prof. J. Francis, Worcester, Mass 1890

Winchell. Prof. N. H., Minneapolis, Minn 1878

Wissman, J. F., San Francisco, Cal 1869

Wood. Horatio C, M.D., Philadelphia, Pa 1866

Woodward, Henry, London, England 1868

Wormley, Dr. Theodore G., Philadelphia, Pa '. 1875

Wright, Prof. Albert A. , Oberlin, Ohio 1874

Wright, Prof. Arthur W., New Haven, Conn 1876

Wynne, .James, M.D., Central America 18.57

Yarrow, Dr. H. C, Washington, D. C 187&

HONORARY MEMBERS.

(RESTRICTED TO FIFTY.)

ELECTED

Agassiz. Prof. Alexander. Cambridge. Mass 1887

Akerman, Prof. A. R., Stockholm, Sweden 1876

Barroit, Mr. Charles, Lille, France 1889

Bunsen. Prof. Robert, Heidelberg, Baden 1876

Oandolle, Prof. Alph. de, Geneva, Switzerland 1852

Croll, Prof. James, Edinburgh, Scotland 1876

Dallinger, Rev. J. H., London, England 1887

Dana, Prof. James D., New Haven, Conn 1842

Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd, Manchester, England 1876

Dawson, Sir William, Montreal, Canada 1876

Descloizeaux, Prof. A., Paris, France 1876

Fizeau, Armand H. L., Paris, France 1879

Flower, Prof. W. H., London, England 1887

Frankland, Prof. Edward, London, England 1879

Geikie, Prof. Archibald, London, England 1876

Geinitz, Prof. Hans Bruno, Dresden, Saxony .... 1876

Gibbs, Dr. Wolcott, Newport, R. 1 1889

Goodale, Prof. Geo. L., Cambridge, Mass 1889

Hall, Prof. Asaph, Washington, D. C 1889

Hall. Prof. James, Albany, N. Y 1852

Hartlaub, Dr. Carl T. , Bremen, Germany 1864

Hauer, Prof. Franz Ritter von, Vienna, Austria 1864

Helmholtz, Prof. H., Berlin, Prussia 1876

Hofmann, Prof. A. W.. Berlin. Prussia 1876

Hooker, Sir Joseph D., London. England 1879

Hunt, Prof. T. Sterry, New York, N. Y 1891

Huxley, Prof. Thos. H., London. England 1876

Keungott, Prof. A.dolph, Zurich, Switzerland 1864

Kokscharow. Prof. Nicholas von. St. Petei'sburg, Russia 1879

HONORARY MEMBERS. 35

ELECTED

Laage, Prof. Victoi* von. VieiiHa, Austria 1876

Langley, Prof. S. P.. Washington. D. C 1887

Lockyer, Mr. J. Norman. London. Eng-land 1880

Mueller, Baron Ferd. von. Melbourne. Australia 1887

Newcomb. Prof. Simon. Washington. D. C 1891

Owen, Prof. Richard. British Museum, London. England .... 1879

Pasteur. Prof. Louis. Paris. France 1887

Quatrefages. Prof. J. L. A., Pans. France 1879

Rawlinson. Sir Henry Cresswicke. London. England 1883

Richter. Prof. Th.. Freiberg. Saxony 1876

Roscoe. Sir Henry. Manchester. England 1887

Rosenbusch. Prof. H. F.. Heidelberg. Germany 1887

Stokes. Sir Geo. G.. London. England 1889

Szabo. Prof. Josef. Buda-Pesth, Hungary 1890

Thomson. Sir William. London. England 1876

Torell. Prof. Otto. Stockholm. Sweden 1876

Tunnec. Prof. P. Ritter vou. Leoben, Austria 1876

Tyndall. Prof. John. London. England 1887

Young, Prof. Charles A., Princeton. N. J 1878

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

New York Academy of Sciences.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

New York Academy of Sciences

LATE

LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

VOLUME XI.

October, 1891, to June, 1892.

KJiteJ l>y the Kkcordi.ng Secketary, assisted by the Publication CoMMriTKK.

NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

1892-1893.

J. A. Allen.

Honorary President.
John S. Newberky.

President.
Oliver P. Hubbard.

Vice-Presidents.

H. Carrington Bolton.

Corresponding Secretary.
Thomas L. Casey.

Recording Secretary.
H. T. Volte.

Treasurer.
Henry Dudley.

Librarian.
James F. Kemp.

Council.

N. L. Britton,
Charles F. Cox,

I». S. Martin,

Geo. F. Kdnz,
Harold Jacoby,

H. F. Osborn,

J. K. Rees,

W. T. Trowbridge.

Curators.

Arthur Hollick,
H. H. Rusby,
F. G. Wiechm.\nn.

O. B. Potter.

H. T. VULTE,

J. K. Rees.

Finance Committee.
John H. Hinton, Chairman, H. G. Marquand,

Committee of Publication.

T. L. Casey, Chairman, D. S. Martin,

J. A. Allen, H. Carrington Bolton,

Committee on Nominations.
Entire Council.

Library Committee.

N. L. Britton, Chairman, H. Carrington Bolton,

J. A. Allen.

TABLE OF C0NTE:N'TS.

Volume XI.

PAPERS READ BEFORE THE, ACADEMY.

NATHAN BANKS.

PAOE

Notes on the Phalangidae of the United States {hy title) 125

H. CARRINGTON BOLTON.

The Eggs of the Plover 24

Chemical Arts in Bible Times 120

A Select Bibliography of Chemistry {by title) 131

Historical Notes on the Gold Cure 151

N. L. BRITTON.

The American Species of the Genus Anemone 9

A List of the Species of the Genera Scirpus and Eynchospora occurring

in North America 74

Note on a Collection of Tertiary Fossil Plants from Cerro Pasco de

Potosi, Bolivia 123

The Paraguayan Plants collected by Dr. Thomas Morong, 1888-1890

(by title) 131

THOMAS L. CASEY.

Coleopterological Notices, No. Ill {by title) 2

Coleopterological Notices, No. IV (,by title) 125

ALBERT H. CHESTER.

The Origin and History of Mineralogical Names 49

JOHN A. CHURCH.

The Railway Problem in China 44, 156

CAKL H. EIGENMANN AND ROSA S. EIGENMANN.

A Catalogue of the Fishes of the Pacific Coast of America North of
Cerros Island {by title) 125

VI CONTENTS.

PAOB

AKTHUR H. ELLIOTT.

Contributions of Organic Chemistry to Modern Medicine 101

ARTHUR HOLLICK.

A Memorial of the late Dr. John I. Northrop 9

The Palaeontology of the Cretaceous Formation on Staten Island 96

OLIVER p. HUBBARD.

Notes on the Discovery of Chloroform 149

HAROLD JACOBY.

On the Reduction of Transit Observations by Least Squares 35

The Rutherfurd Photographic Measures of the Group of the Pleiades... 41

Report upon the Meeting of the National Academy of Sciences 41

The Rutherfurd Photographic Measures of the Stars about B Cygni 120

JAMES F. KEMP.

The ElaeoHte Syenite near Beemerville, Sussex County, N. J 60

Petrographical Notes 126

JAMES F. KEMP AND V. F. MARSTERS.

The Trap Dikes in the Lake Champlain Valley and the Neighboring

Adirondacks 13

GEORGE F. KUNZ.

Some Observations on the Opal Mines of Hungary and the Occurrence

of Opal in Washington and Oregon 32

On the Origin of Garnets and Associated Minerals in the Garnet Dis-
trict of Bohemia and Saxony 32

Notes on the Minerals, Gems, and Ethnology of the Ural Mountains,

as Observed during a Recent Trip 119

L. H. LAUDY.

Recent Researches on the Solar Spectrum 125

J. T. MONELL AND C. R. MANN.

Transit Factors for the Observatory of Columbia College 41

HENRY F. OSBORN.

The Evolution of the Horse 107

CHARLES S. PU08SKR.

Notes on the Geology of Skuunemunk Mountain, Orange County, N. J. 132

CONTENTS. VU

PAdE

M. I. PUPIN.

A New Form of Vacuum Tube, and a New Electrodynamic Current

Interrupter 44

Vacuum Discharges and their Bearing on the Electrical Theory of the

Solar Corona 72

Further Experiments in Connection with Vacuum Discharges 124

A. L. RAWSON.

The Ancient Inscription on a Wall at Chatata, Tennessee 26

J. K. HEES.

Changes on the Lunar Surface 42

Ancient Astronomical Instruments 106

Report of Observations on the Comet of 1892 (Swift) made at the

Columbia College Observatory 120

HEINRICH RIES

The Clays of the Hudson River Valley 33

JOHN TATLOCK, JR.

Remarks on the Aurora of February 13, 1892 105

C. H. TYLER TOWNSEND.

Catalogue of the Described South America Species of the Calyptrate
Muscidae 131

W. p. TROWBRIDGE.

The Mandibles of the Hudsonian Godwit 30

H. T. VULTE.

Commercial Oil-testing 126

Crystals of Tin 96

H. T. VUIiTE AND D. W. WARD.

The Natural Dyes as applied to Wool 48, 157

F. G. WIECHMANN.

Sucrose, Dextrose, and Levulose ; their Quantitative Determination

when occurring together 126

via CONTENTS.

PUBLIC LECTURES, COURSE OF 1891-1892.
October 26, 1891.

DR. THOMAS MORONG.

PAOB

Paraguay, the Land and the People 24

November 16, 1891.

PROF. OTIS T. MASON.

Woman's Part in the Earlier Civilizations 29

December 2\, 1891.

PROF. H. L. PAIRCHILD,

Mountains, their Origin and History 45

January 18, 1892.

PROF. FRANKLIN W. HOOPER.

The Loch« and Crannogs of Scotland 48

February 15, 1892.

DK. H. CARRINGTON BOLTON.

Street Scenes in Cairo and Glimpses of the Nile 73

March 21, 1892.

PROP. A. H. ELLIOTT.

The Contributions of Organic Chemistry to Modern Medicine 107

April 18, 1892.

DR. ALEXIS A. JtTLIEN.

Elves of the Air 123

May 16, 1892.

PROF. OGDEN N. ROOD.

Color 126

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

October 5th, 1891.

Regular Business Meeting.

Vice-President, Dr. Hubbard, in the chair. About twenty-five
persons present.

The Recording Secretary read the minutes of June 1st, which
were adopted.

Dr. N. L. Brttton stated that since the lamentable death of Dr.
John I. Northrop he had acted as Libi'arian, and with the aid of
ofiScers of the Columbia College Library had perfected a scheme for
recording volumes received ; that the library of the Academy had
acquired a substantial addition during the recess, amounting to
about 1000 parts of volumes.

The Recording Secretary referred to the tragic death of Dr.
Northrop and nominated Dr. H. T. Yulte to fill the vacancy in
the librarianship.

The following persons were nominated for Resident Members: —

Mr. Dewitt J. Apgar, by Capt. Thomas L. Casey.

Mr. George H. Knight, by Prof. J. K. Rees.

Mr. Nelson Smith, by H. Carrington Bolton.

Mr. J. PiERPONT Morgan, " " "

Mr. Wm. C. Schermerhorn, " " "

Dr. Clark Bell, by Mrs. Annie Chambers Ketchum.

Miss Virginia Vaughan, " " " "

Mrs. Edward Heylyn, " " " "

Mr. Ernest du Vivier, by "Wm. G. De Witt.

Prof. James F. Kemp, by Dr. N. L. Brixton.
Vol. XL— 1

2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oCT. 5,

Mr. Arthur Hollick, by N. L. Britton.

Mr. Ernest Lederle, " " "

Mr. Heinrich Ries, " " "

And the following as Corresponding Members: Josf; G. Agui-
LERA, of Mexico City, and Prof. L. Clerc, of Ekaterinburg, Russia-
both by Mr. George F. Kunz.

The Secretary read a letter from Dr. Eugen Sell, of Berlin,
announcing that Prof. A. W. Hofmann would celebrate the jubilee
of his doctorate on August 9th, 1891. Dr. Bolton stated that by
chance he was in Berlin and assisted at the pleasant ceremonial.

The Secretary read the following paper by title: —

Coleopterological Notices, No. III.

BY THOMAS L. CASEY.

[This paper will be published in the Annals, Vol. YI, Nos. 2
and 3.]

The Secretary announced that he had received a copy of the will
of Mme. Anne Emilte Clara Goguet, widow of Monsieur Marc
Guzman, who died at Pau, France, in the Convent of I'Esp^i-ance,
June 30th, 1891. By this will the New York Academy is to re-
ceive a legacy of 100,000 francs, provided two other institutions
decline the conditions; these institutions are, first, the Academy of
Sciences, Paris, and, second, the Academy of Sciences at Milan.
The conditions are peculiar, viz. : the sum named to be awarded as
a prize to the person who succeeds in communicating with one of
the planets and receiving a reply, the planet Mars being excepted
as it is suflBciently well known. A second clause, however, names
conditions which are more easily fulfilled, and it is highly improb-
able that the New^ York Academy of Sciences will receive the
legacy. The will is here given in full in the original language.

Testament de Mad* Yeuve Guzman.

I.

Enveloppe r en ferment le testament.

Ceci est mon testament que je prie Mess Mallet de garder dans
leur caisse, et de remettre en temps et lieux (a mon deje-) a M. le
Colonel Floridor Dumas, 11 rue des Beaux Arts, et a M. De la
Palme, notaire, 15 rue de la chaussee d'Antin.

Anne Emilie Clara Goguet, Y* Guzman.

Paris, 30 Octobre, 1889.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 3

II.

Lettre accompagnant le testament.

Pau, 1" Mars, 1889.

Convent des Sceurs de I'Esperance,

rue Monpensier 9.

Je dis que le testament que je joins a cette lettre et dat^ da 11 et
18 Ddeembre, mil huit cent quatre-vingt huit est le seal valable. Je
le confie au Colonel Floridor Dumas que je nomme mon executeur
testamentaire.

Resume des legs que je fais.

A I'academie des sciences de I'Institut de

France 100,000

A I'academie de medecine de Paris . . . 50,000

A I'assistance publique ..... 50,000

A Pierre Carnoy, filleul de mon fils . . . 30,000
A Jeanne et Eend Garcin, petits enfants d'An-
toine Garcin, en son vivant, boulevard Bonne

nouvelle 26 4,000

Soeur Rosalie 2000, (Delort Cornelic) 2000 . 4,000

Rente Goiraud fond 4000, Messes 4000 a Vannes 8,000

Emile Leclert 10,000, Colonel Dumas 10,000 . 20,000

Notaire et clerc 6000, frais 6000 . . . 12,000

278,000
Ville de Vannes . . . 10,000

Done il me semble que j'ai dispos^ de deux cent quatre-vingt huit
mille francs, auquels il faut ajouter a peu pres dix mille francs pour
frais de maladie, enterrement, etc. Or je laisse en rente

3 fo plus de .

Ville de Paris .
Avec moi en certificats nominatif Pon

cieres, Quest, Orleans, plus de .
Chez messieurs Mallet .
" " Hottinguer .

9,210 rente

1,200 de rente
2,000 " "

700

u

rente .... 12,982

J'ai oubli^ dans les d^penses le cout des insertions que je demande
dans les journaux.

J'ai fait le plus equitablement que j'ai pu.

Adieu colonel Dumas.

A. E. C. Goguet, V* Guzman.

II faut compter que j'ai aussi 5 actions, canal de Suez.

J'obligations item, Anne E. C. Goguet, V* Guzman, le 28 Sept.
1890.

En suite se trouve cette mention :

4: TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oCT. 5,

Enrcfifistr^ a Paris, premier bureau, le dix Juillct, mil huit cent
quatre-vingt onze, folio 35, case 15 ; re9u pour enregistrenient sept
francs cinquante centimes, amende de timbre cinquaute francs, d^-
cimes quatorze francs trente huit centimes.

Total: Soixante onze francs quatre-vingt huit centimes.

Signe: Jenty.

III.

Testament.

Paris, ce 11 P^jembre, mil huit cent quatrc-vingt huit.

J'annulle et revoque tout testament, toute donation fait avant le
present ^crit, que je d^c^lare etre ma derniere volont^.

J'institue M. le Colonel Floridor Dumas, 11 rue des Beaux Arts
a Paris, men ]6^Sita\v(i universel, a la condition bien entendu qu'-
avant tout, les legs et dispositions que je fais ci-apre^ seront executes
et reraplis.

Je lei;ue a raead^mie des Sciences de I'Institut de France cent
mille francs pour fonder un prix qui portera le nozii de mon fils
Pierre Guzman; ce prix sera donne sans exclusion de nationality a
celui qui trouvera le moyen de communiquer avec un astre et re-
^evoir r^ponse a ce signe. J'exclus la planete Mars qui parait
suffisament connue.

Tant que la solution demande ne sera pas obtenue, les inl^rets
seront cumul<?s pendant cinq amides et formeront un prix toujours
ddcernd sous le nom de mon lils, a un savant fran9ais ou etranger,
qui aura fait faire un progre^ rdel et sdi'ieux, soit dans la eonnais-
sance intime des planetes de notre systeme polaire, soit dans les
relations des planelcs de ce systeme avec la terre au moyen d'instru-
nients de physique ou d'optique plus perfectionnds ou par tout
autre moyen de mode d'inspection ou d'investigation.

Si les prix ne seront pas deeernd-; au bout de dix ans, I'Acaddmie
aura le droit de donner deux prix sous le nom de mon fils et dans
les memes conditions avec les intd/ets du capital.

Je ldi;'ue cinquante mille francs a I'acaddinie de me lecine de Paris
pour fonder un prix qui portera le nom de mon fils Pierre Guzman
et qui sera donnd a celui qui trouvera un traitement rdellement
efficace dans les formes les plus communes dans les maladies organ-
iques du coeur confirnides.

En attendant qu'on vienne a trouver s'il se pent un traitement
qui gudrisse la plus part de ces maladies, je veux que la rente de ces
cinquante mille francs soit dd 'ernde chacpie annde au travail tl.do-
rique ou pratique le meilleur sur I'une ou I'autre de ces maladies.

Je Idgue cinquante mille francs a I'assistance publique pour que
I'on fasse chafjue semaine dans les d;ablissements de Ste. Pdrinne,
d'lvry et des Petits mdiiages une musique militaire comme celle
qui se fait dans les jardins publics de Paris. La musique devra
durer pendant une heure au nioins, et etre faite dans les cours au
jardins de ces dtablissements et non dans la rue. Si avec la rente

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 5

de ces cinquantc mille francs, il ja de quoi faire do la musiqne dans
un autre etablissement je veux que ce soit dans un dtablissement
de vieillards.

Aussitot I'ouverture de raon testament je veux que les trois dis-
positions et legs que je fai.s ci-dessus soient annonce.s dans des joiir-
naux comietents ; deux journaux fran^ais, deux journaux espairnols,
un journal anglais, et un journal americain "le New York Herald,"
les annonces seront faites une fois tons les ans a la nieme epoque
pendant 10 ans si les ]>rix ne sont pas deeernes jusque la. Le cout
en .sera pieleve sur I'actif de ma succession sans que la mort ou la
rd/ligence de mon Idxataire universal puisse les interrompre.

Je lexue trente mille francs a Pierre Carnoy, le filleul de mon fils
et fils de Marie Roy et de Ferdinand Carnov ingdriieur a Lorient.
Ces trente mille francs seront places en 3% franyais et ddpo^d-; a la
caisse des depots et consignations pour lui etre remis a sa majorite.
Les inlerets seront employes jusque la pour faciliter ses Etudes pour
entrer a TEcole Polytecnique.

Je Idgue quatre mille francs pour etre partages entre Jeanne
Garcin et Rdne Montaynon petits enfants de feu Antoine Garcin
avocat. demeurant en son vivant 26, boulevard Bonne nouvelle.

Je Idgue deux mille francs a soeur Rcsalie, dominicaine au con-
vent rue de la Nostre a Pau, en souvenir des soins qu'elle a donnes
a mon fils.

Je le/ue deux mille a Mdlle Cornelie Delort, rue Ste. Ferdinand
20 a Paris, fille du general Delort.

Je le/ue deux cent francs de rente a Mme. Goiraud, propridtaire
a Versailles rue Satory 12, reversibles sur la tete de sa nieje Mme.
Raisin pour entretenir toujours en parfait etat, le tombeau dont
elles ont bien voulu prendre soin jusqu'ici et ou reposent ma mere,
ma soeur et mon fils. Le codt pour que je sois enterre dans ce
meme tombeau sera preleve sur I'actif de ma succession.

Je l^j^ue deux mille francs a la fabrique de la catbeJrale de
Yannes, Morbihan, pour qu'il soit te!ebie tons les ans une grande
messe anniversaire le jour de le mort de mon fils (nuit du 7 et 8
Mai 1886). Aussi deux mille francs pour qu'il soit e^alement celel)re
une grande niesse le 9 Novembre tons les ans pour les anniversaires
de la mort de ma mere et de ma S(Eur. II est entendu que ces
grandes messes seront ce!ebies dans la cathddrale de Yannes meme
et non ailleurs.

Je Ie,'-ue six mille francs a M. De la Palme, notaire, 15 rue de la
chaus^ee d'Antin, dont trois des ces six mille francs pour son 1"
clerc M. Ribaut (en tout six mille).

Tons les legs que je fais ci-dessus au dessus de deux mille francs
payeront leurs droits, et ma succession n'en sera pas grevee.

Mons fils a charge M. Emile Leclert, ingenieur 75 rue de Chaillot,
de la suite de ses travaux scientifiques. De-^ que M. Emile Leclert
aura fait paraitre; des que M. Emile Leclert aura fait paraitre un
resultat deSnitif (concernant le Dynamoteur et I'aviation) en

6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 5,

I'honneur dc mon fils avec quelques pag-es explicatives toujours en
I'honneur de mon fils, je lui le^ue dix mille fi-ancs, dout cinq mille
pour les frais et cinq mille pour lui.

M. le Colonel Floridor Dumas, 11 rue des Beaux Arts a Paris,
lequel je nomme mon executeur testamentaire, s'est charge de publier
a mon nom les manuscrits personels que je laisse qui composent
trois volumes, un conte de fees, un roman Coralle episode de la rev-
olution de St. Domingue, un moreeaux detacbe-; et poesies ; des que
ces trois volumes seront publid^ je lui legue dix mille francs dont
cinq mille pour les frais et cinq mille pour lui.

Le travail de M. Emile Leclert et celui du Colonel Dumas ter-
minus, I'argent que je leur leg'ue leur sera com])t^ et jusqu'a ce
travail fini I'argent sera d^po^d a la caisse des depots et consig-
nations.

Je ]4.>:ue tout ce qu'il y a de tableaux et minatures chez moi au
filleul de mon fils, pour que le tout lui soit conserve jusqu'a sa ma-
jority. Je lui leg'ue aussi tons raes bijoux.

Je legue mon mobilier, linge de corps et de m.aisou, glaces, pen-
dules, garniture de cheminees, vaisselle, argenterie a I'hospice de la
ville de Yannes (hospice militaire s'il est possible). Je lui le^-ue
aussi les atlas, tons les livres, l)rochures, qui se sont dans la biblio-
thecpie. Je fais ce le/ue a la condition que la ville de Vannes ne
vende rien de ce que je lui laisse, absolument rien, mais fasse em-
porter le tout a Yannes.

Si un ou plusieurs legs que je fais ne sont pas acceptd^ dans les
propres termes que j'ai dit, ce leg ou ces legs seront doniies a I'acad-
emie des sciences de Milan, pour recorapenser celui qui trouvera le
moyen de correspondre avec un astre (je veux dire faire un signe a
un astre et reeevoir repons a ce signej si I'acadeniie des sciences de
Milan refuse, je la remplace par I'acaddmie des sciences de l^ew
York, Etats Unis d'Amerique.

Paris, ce 30 Juillet mil huit cents quatre-vingt neuf.

Anne Emilie Clara Goguet, Y® Guzman.

Cast entendu, ce testament est ma derniere volontd.

Paris, ce 30 Juillet mil huit cents quatre-vingt neuf.

Anne Emilie Clara Goguet, Y* Guzman.

En marge de ce testament se trouve cette mention : Enregistrd a
Paris, premier bureau, le dix Juillet mil huit cents quatre-vingt
onze, folio 35, case 14, re^u neuf francs trente huit centimes, d^cimes
compris. (Signe) Jeanty.

II est ainsi aux originaux des enveloppe, lettre et testament
olographes ci-dessus litteralement transcrit, de Mad^ Anne Emilie
Clara Goguet en son vivant sans profession veuve de M. Marc Guz-
man de ^dee a Pau au convent de I'Esperance, rue Montpensier, le
trente Juin mil huit cent quatre-vinn^t onze.

Lesd. lettre et testament depo.-es au rang des minutes de M.
Emile De la Palme, notaire a Paris soussigne le doux Juillet mil
huit cent quatre-vingt onze, en vertu d'un ordonnance rendue par
Tun de Messieurs les Juges pour M. le President du tribunal civil

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 7

de premiere instance de la Seine, contenue en son proces verbal
d'ouverture et de description des d. lettre et testament en date da
meme jour enregistr^s. De la Palme.

The Chairman then called on members for communications. Dr.
Brttton stated that in continuation of his study of South American
plants he had examined the herbaria preserved at Kew, Paris, and
Geneva. He had also studied the old types as seen in the Linnsean
Collection at Burlington House, and those of Jussieu and Lamark
at Paris, and of de Candolle at Geneva. The results were chiefly
of a technical nature and would be given on another occasion.

Prop. D. S. Martin spoke of having attended the three great
scientific meetings at Washington, details of which he reserved for
the future.

Mr. George F. Kunz spoke of mineralogical observations made
by him in Bohemia, in the Ural Mountains at the platinum wash-
ings, etc.

Mr. a. L. Rawson spoke of a visit to the supposed wall near Cleve-
land, Tenn., and stated that it had not been determined whether the
wall is natural or artificial. The wall is about one thousand feet
long, built in three courses of sandstone about eight feet high, and
rests on sandstone. The courses are joined with a red cement not
easily separated. Between two courses are strange characters re-
sembling inscriptions cut by man, and the speaker exhibited a sketch
of a portion of these characters.

Dr. Britton asked if the markings were in relief, and Mr. Raw-
son, by the aid of the blackboard, explained the position and nature
of the so-called characters.

Dr. Bolton referred to the fact that alkaline solutions, especially
calcareous, sometimes infiltrate sandstones and produce peculiar
forms in attempting to crystallize out in the pores, imitating the
work of man.

Mr. Kunz referred to the quartz markings on septaria.

Dr. Bolton being called upon by the Chair, stated he had been
engaged in bibliographical studies abroad, especially in the libraries
of London, Paris, Strassburg, Darmstadt, and Berlin. He praised
the advantages offered scholars at the British Museum, and spoke
of the unsatisfactory arrangements at the Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris. He had experienced courtesies everywhere.

The Secretary announced the presence of Prof. F. R. Mallet,

8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oCT. 12,

of the Geological Survey of India, and of Prof. R. T. Mallet, of
England.

Mr. Cox, President of the Council of the Scientific Alliance of
New York, reported the publication of a Bulletin announcing the
October Meetings of the six Societies within the Alliance. He
spoke of the awakened public spirit in New York City as shown in
recent splendid private gifts, and hoped the day was coming when
the Scientific societies would have a home of their own.

Prof. Martin reported that the Audubon Monument Committee
had secured nearly the entire amount required.

The Recording Secretary reported the forwardness of the Trans-
actions and the publication of the Blue Book of the Academy.

Mr. Kunz stated that the Tariff does not recognize objects of
ethnology nor archaeology, and a great tax was imposed on importers.

Prof. Martin proposed that a Committee be appointed to
formulate a resolution calling upon the Secretary of the Treasury
to remedy this evil. Carried.

Meeting adjourned.

October 12th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Prof. D. S. Martin in the Chair. About twenty persons present.

The minutes of the previous meeting (October 5th) were read
and approved.

The Secretary announced the nomination of Mr. Charles
Proteus Steinmetz as a Resident Member by Dr. Fiske.

Prop. Martin presented a communication asking for contribu-
tions to a proposed fund for the purpose of establishing the Leidy
Memorial Museum, as an independent part of the great museum
now forming at the University of Pennsylvania; the amount de-
sired being $50,000.

The Secretary read a letter from the "Vice-President of the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Lisbon, announcing the death of the Secre-
tary, Jose Maria Latino Coeliio.

The Secretary exhibited a number of plates accompanying a
paper from the Societddel'Industrie Min^rale, and entitled "Etudes
sur le terrain houille de Commentry." The plates are in elephant
folio, and of great beauty.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 9

The Chairman regretted the fact that the Academy Library is so
little used by the members.

Prof. N. L. Britton then read a paper entitled: —

The American Species of the Genus Anemone, Illustrated by

Specimens.

[This paper will appear in the Annals, Yol. VI.]

Mr. Arthur Hollick then read the following : —

'to

A Memorial of the late Dr. John I. Northrop.

BY ARTHUR HOLLICK.

It is my privilege to-night to say a few words in regard to the
late Dr. John I. Northrop, whom most of us know by reputation,
many knew personally, a few, perhaps, intimately. Similarity in
the work and occupations of our lives threw us much together
during the past two years, and I thus learned to understand and to
appreciate him more and more. For this reason, when called upon
to do so, I accepted the responsibility of preparing the tribute to
his memory, which I propose to present to-night.

John Isaiah Northrop, E.M., Ph.D., was born in New York
City, October 12, 18G1. He would, therefore, have been, had he
lived, just thirty years of age to-day. With the fact of his death
we are all acquainted, but in regard to the tragedy in which he lost
his life some are perhaps not informed.

On the afternoon of the 25th of last June Dr. Northrop had
occasion to obtain some alcohol for use in the preservation of
zoological specimens. As a measure of safety the main supply at
Columbia College is stored in a fire-proof vault under the School of
Mines building, from which is drawn, from time to time, such
quantities as may be needed. Two janitors accompanied him and
together they proceeded to draw off some of the alcohol from the
large cask into a smaller vessel. A gas jet and electric light were
burning in the hallway, but the vault was dark and Dr. Northrop
struck a match in order the better to see how the vessel was filling.
Just what happened we shall never know, but the alcohol ignited — -
there was a momentary playing of flame around the faucet, a flash,
an explosion and a sea of fire in the vault. All three of the men
were thrown down and badly burned, but Dr. Northrop evidently
had his clothing saturated with the alcohol and his injuries were
such that he died during the following night.

Dr. Northrop was graduated from the Columbia College School
of Mines, in the class of 1884, with the degree of Engineer of
Mines. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was received in 1888,
and was earned by his two dissertations: "Histology of Hoya
carnosa" and "Fossil Leaves from Bridgeton, N. J."

10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 12,

Immediately after g-raduation he accepted the position of nig-ht
superintendent at Havemeyer & Elder's sugar refinery, but shortly
afterwards removed to Deadwood, Dak., where he joined one of his
classmates, and together they opened an office as " Minin.g En-
gineers, Chemists and Assayers." In the spring of 188G he
returned to New York, on account of urgent family reasons and
decided not to return, but to devote his time to pure science. He
was appointed Honorary Fellow, afterwards Fellow in Geology at
Columbia College, and rapidly made himself familiar with the prin-
ciples of botany, geology and zoology. Of the latter he made a spe-
cialty, and the lectures in this subject at the college during that time
were delivered by him. The zoological collection in the School of
Mines, particularly the invertebrate part, is largely his creation. He
also purchased and presented to the collegea collection of New Eng-
land birds consisting of some 1500 specimens, besides miscellaneous
material too numerous to mention.

His work in his chosen field of study was evidently appreciated,
for on the 5th of last May he was made tutor in Zoology, and his
appointment was practically settled as the future assistant to Prof.
Osborn in the new School of Biology. In order to perfect himself
in the duties which he expected soon to assume he had obtained
leave of absence for a year, intending to start, during the early
part of last September, for Germany, to study under Hertwig and
Haeckel.

His loss to Columbia College is already manifest — his loss to
science we can only imagine, but the finished and unfinished work
which he has left behind him give evidence of acute powers of
observation, painstaking study, and a strict regard for trutli in
recording of facts — all of which qualities are the essentials of a
successful man of science. He held membership in the Torrey
Botanical Club, American Institute of Mining Engineers, Linna^an
Society, American Ornithologist's Union, American Folk-lore
Society, American Association for the Advancement of Science, and
International Geological Congress, as well as in this Academy.

The titles of his principal published papers are:

Plant Notes from Termiscouata Co., Canada. (Bull. T. B. C,
Nov. 1887.)

The Eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. (S. of M. Quart., Jan. 1889.)

Plant Notes from Tadousac and Termiscouata Cos., Canada.
(Bull. T. B. C, Feb. 1890.)

Notes on the Geology of the Bahamas. (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci.,
Oct. 1890.)

Birds of Andros Island, Bahamas. (Auk, Jan. 1891.)

The Cultivation of Sisal in the Bahamas. (Pop. Sci. Month.,
March, 1891.)

In addition to these there are various minor notes and memoranda
published mainly in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club and
the American Naturalist.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 11

Among his unfinished works, almost ready for publication, were : —

A List of Star Fishes and Ophiurans collected in the Bahamas,
— A List of Sea Anemones collected in the Bahamas with descrip-
tions of two probable new species (illustrated), and The Anatomy
of Hoya carnosa (illustrated). He was also at work on A Descrip-
tion of the Fossil Plants of the Yellow Gravel of New Jersey, for
publication by the U. S. Geological Survey, for v^/hich all the illus-
trations had been made. The general subject of the Yellow Gravel
was one in which he was particularly interested, and in regard to
which he had collected many notes. He also had in contemplation
a work upon the islands of New Providence and Andros, embody-
ing all the lists of collections and the various notes made there by
him during the early part of the year 1890. The amount and
variety of material collected during this trip (from Jan. 2d to July
.10th) was remarkable, and it has always excited my admiration
and wonder. Mineralogy, geology, botany, and zoology are all
represented, and the specimens are carefully labelled or tagged for
reference or for future study. One of the birds collected proved to
be new to science, and was described and figured by Prof. J. A. Allen
in the Auk, vol. viii, Jan. 1891, under the name of Icterus Norlhropi.
The two new sea anemones, previously mentioned, and several un-
described plants are also to be included amongst the specimens
collected during this trip, and finally it may not, perhaps, be amiss
to call attention to the word " rhizomorph," coined by Dr. Northrop
as descriptive of the peculiar cylindrical concretions formed around
the roots of plants. The word is a singularly happy one, and bids
fair to become a j^ermanent addition to scientific terminology.

Dr. Northrop was married June 28, 1S89, to Alice Bell Rich, a
companion, the value of whose assistance in all his works he never
failed to recognize and proclaim — one whom I trust will carry to
completion much of the work which he left unfinished behind him.

Dr. Northrop's excessive modesty gave him an appearance of re-
ticence and reserve which was not always understood by those who
did not know him intimately. He seemed to appreciate this, and
used to think that he never made a good impression on any one,
because he felt that he was not a good talker. To those who knew
him best, however, this apparent reserve was merely one of the
evidences of his retiring disposition, which showed itself in the in-
> difference with which he regarded the discovery and descriptions of
new species as compared with the study of their structure and life
history. He was an enthusiastic and indomitable collector and
careful observer, sparing neither time nor trouble to complete or
render correct whatever he undertook. He actually seriously i)ro-
posed to return to the Bahamas again for the sole i)urpose of making
certain in regard to the exact color of the disc of one of the new
sea anemones, that he proposed to have lithographed. Unlike some
collectors, however, he could never quite smother his sense of
humanity by his enthusiasm as a naturalist, as an instance which

12 . TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 19,

came to my knowledge will show. While at Grand Manan, during
the summer of 1889, he visited one of the little islands which the
petrels had long used as a breeding place. He took several of the
young birds out of their holes in the ground, examined them care-
fully, and, to the surprise of his companion, returned them, not
taking even one for a specimen, although they are comparatively
rare, and he was not likely perhaps to have such an opportunity
again. He said that he could not make up his mind to take one
when he appreciated that each mother-bird had but one little one all
summer. He afterwards used to laugh at what he called his
" foolishness," but I have no doubt that he would have acted in the
same manner again under similar circumstances.

One of his former classmates upon hearing that I proposed to
say a few words in regard to him, suggested that mention should be
made of how he once saved a companion's life at the risk of his
own. They were ascending a shaft at one of the Lake Superior
mines on a man engine, when his companion, some distance above,
missed step and was falling down the shaft. Young Xorthrop
grabbed him as he fell, and succeeded in holding him with one hand
while he supported himself with the other. To me this incident is
indicative of Dr. Js^orthrop as I knew him. It was an act which
called for a strong arm, quick action, and steady nerve, and showed
that complete forgetfulness of self which was ever one of his most
prominent characteristics.

Meeting adjourned.

October 19th, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Dr. N. L. Britton in the chair. About twelve persons present.

The minutes of the preceding meeting (October 12th) were read
and approved.

The Secretary read a communication from Yice-President Dr.
Hubbard, announcing the appointment of Messrs. Kunz, Cox, and
Tatlock as a committee to memorialize Congress with regard to
the recognition of Archaeology and Ethnology in the tariff.

The Secretary announced that the Lecture Course for 1891-92
had been arranged, and that the tickets would be ready for distri-
bution in a few days.

The Chairman announced that the "Bulletin of the Scientific
Alliance" had replaced the usual weekly notices.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 13

Dr. Brixton exhibited some Spanish chestnuts in the burr, from
a grove in southern New Jersey, and now for sale in the lower part
of New York City.

Prof. Martin spoke of the existence of a fine rocking stone or
perched boulder, about ten feet in every dimension, at West Farms,
Westchester County, N. Y. ; also of a glacial furrow in Pelham
Park.

Prof. J. F. Kemp then read the following paper, entitled : —

The Trap Dikes in the Lake Champlain Valley and the
neighboring Adirondacks, Illustrated by Numerous Speci-
mens and Photographs.

BY J. F. KEMP, COLUMBIA COLLEGE, AND V. F. MARSTERS, UNIVERSITY

OP INDIANA.

(In the preparation of the complete paper of which this article is
a condensation, the writers received a little financial assistance from
the United States Geological Survey, through Prof. R. Pumpelly,
and the thin sections, to the number of 200, were prepared in the
laboratory of the Survey. This digest is published with Prof. Pum-
pelly's approval. The field-work was done in 1889 and 1890.)

The shores of Lake Champlain consist in greater part of Cam-
brian and Lower Silurian rocks. The extreme southern end is
indeed bounded by the ArchiBan; and further north, between Port
Henry and Split Rock, and between Willsborough and Port Kent,
the foot-hills of the Adirondacks reach and form the water-front,
but elsewhere it is chiefly made up of the sandstones, limestones,
and shales or slates of the early sedimentary systems. The geolo-
gical relations of the latter have been lately elaborated by Messrs.
"Walcott, Brainerd, and Seely, but the true succession of the norites,
gneisses, and cr3'stalline limestones of the Adirondacks, and even
reliable descriptions of their petrographical characters remain to be
worked out. The matter hitherto published is but fragmentary, or
is based on field observations decidedly incommensurate with the
problems involved.

The whole region is seamed with dikes of igneous rock. These
pierce both the crystalline rocks of the Archaean and the sedimentary
strata up to and including their youngest member, the Utica slate.
On the Vermont side, the most southern dike at all connected with
the region is the one lately mentioned by Prof. Pumpelly,' in the
Hoosac Mountain, near the Vermont State line, but the most south-

1 R. Pumpelly. The Relation of Secular Rock- Disintegration, etc. Proc.
Geol. See. of America, vol. ii, p. 2U9.

14 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 19,

erlv one described in this paper is in Mt. Eoliis, in the town of Dor-
set, Yt.' F. L. Nason has mentioned others from Mt. Holly.^ We
have previously described several from the vicinity of Whitehall
and Rutland.' ' North of this point many dikes are recorded in the
Yermont Reports and in the earlier work of Zadock Thompson,*
hearlv all of which have been revisited and studied in their sections.
On the New York side, the most southerly recorded dike is near
Glen's Falls,^ and several others have been discovered by F. L. Na-
son near the town of North River, specimens of which have been
very kindly placed in our hands. Further north in the region of
the magnelite mines, hardly an excavation has been made which
does not reveal them. They occur at Hammondville, Mineville,
Palmer Hill, at the Arnold mines, and at Lyon Mountain. Many
of these are mentioned in volume xv of the Tenth Census, in B, T.
Putnam's report on the iron ores. Many other dikes are revealed
by the cuts of the D. & H. R. R., especially near Port Kent. The
great (supposed) dike at Avalanche Lake, in the Adirondacks, was
early recorded," but is shown by our sections to be a shear zone,
Avhich will be elsewhere described.

From this brief outline it will be seen that eruptive action has
been widespread in the area treated. Similar phenomena are likewise
known across the national boundary as far as Montreal, where they
are the most extensively developed of any district in the entire
region.

The dikes are of two greatly contrasted kinds of rock. The one,
quite acidic and essentially feldspathic, is related to the porphyries,
trachytes, and keratophyrs ; the other, much more basic, includes
diabases, camptonites, and monchiquites. The former corresponds
to the dike rock bostonite, lately proposed by Rosenbusch as a name
for the trachytic dikes, which are well nigh universally associated
with elaeolite syenite, and this name will be here employed. We
feel conservative about the introduction of new names into our
already overburdened science, the more so, as in this case the rocks,
do not essentially differ from effusive trachytes, but as they occur in
dikes and far from any extended central outbreak, and as the insti-
tution of the dike rocks affords so much convenience in correlation,
the special term is adopted.

The Bostonite {Poyyhyt'y, Trachyte) Dikes. — The name boston-

1 Geology of Vermont, vol. ii, p. 586.

2 F. L. Nason. A New Locality for the Camptonite of Hawes and Rosen-
busch. A. J. S. iii, xxxviii, 229.

3 J. F. Kemp and V. F. Marsters. Camptonite Dikes near Whitehall, N. Y.
Amer. Geol., iv, 97.

* Zadock Thompson. Appendix to Thompson's History of Vermont, Bur-
lington, 1853, p. 53.

5 E. Eminons. Geol. of 2d Dist. N. Y. State Survey, p. 184.

6 W. C. Redfield. Some Account of two Visits to the Mountains of Essex
County, N. Y., 1830-37, etc., Amer. Jour. Sci., i, xxxiii, 301. See also First
Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Survey, 1837, p. 131 ; 2d do., 1838, p. 223; and Em-
mons' final Report, p. 215.

1891. J NEAV YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 15

ite was coined by Eosenbusch/ and was first applied to a dike rock
of tracbytic habit that occurs with the elaeolite-syenite of Brazil.
The name is based on the descriptions of rocks of this character
from near Boston, under the names porphyry and trachyte by
Wadsworth, Diller, and others. These rocks from the Champlaiii
Valley hav^e a prevailiufjly light tint, which is usually a creamy or
brownish white, but which is also in instances a lio-ht chocolate.
They have a general rough and granular feel and fracture very like
typical trachyte. Very rarely this is lithoidal or half vitreous, like
a lithoidal obsidian. Phenocrysts are not in general specially
marked, the less so, because widespread alteration makes fresh ma-
terial difficult to obtain. When present they exhibit the shining
cleavage faces of feldspar. One dike from the east side of Shel-
burne Point, near Burlington, consists almost entirel}" of the large
porphjn-itic feldspars. (Quartz is much rarer, although recognized
as a phenocryst in two dikes.

Under the microscope these rocks are seen at once to have a
marked and characteristic trachytic structure, by which is meant
that the ground mass consists of small feldspar rods, not infre-
quently in fluidal arrangement. Between the rods one can some-
times detect small masses of interstitial quartz. The ground mass
is invariably holocrystallino and the feldspars are idiomorphic.
The quartz is not. The phenocrysts average 3-5 mm. Although
generally kaolinized, it can be seen that they are but once twinned,
and are in the great majority of cases orthoclase. The small crys-
tals are also once twinned, but as shown by the analyses they are
probably both orthoclase and anorthoclase. A very few plagioclases
have been noted. When alteration has made the feldspars of the
ground mass muddy or kaolinized they look like so many sections
of grains of wheat lying together.

It is a remarkable fact that in no case have any recognizable dark
silicates been found in a slide Spots of limonite and iron stains
are indeed seen in some, and these may have once been bisilicates,
but it is doubtful, for none appear in the freshest material. Nor is
any magnetite noted. A few stray crystals and masses of pyrite
alone appear. The dikes are singularly free from any basic min-
erals and present a very pure, crystallized, feldspathic magma.

In alteration the dikes afford nests of calcite and quartz, and the
usual muddy kaolin is abundantly present. The calcium for the
formation of calcite was doubtless derived in large part from the
neighboring slates, in which this mineral is very common.

The following analyses illustrate the range of compositions. No.
66 is probably nearest the average. While it appears very fresh

1 M. Hunter and H. Rosenbusch. Ueber Moncbiquit, ein Camptonitiscbes
Gan<;-gestein aus der Gefolgscbaft der Elaeolitb-syenite. Tscliermak's Min.
u, Petr. Mitth. xi, p. 445, 1890. Tbe bostonite, is incidentally mentioned
evidently as a "caveat," bnt applies so well that we are glad to adopt it.
After our determinations bad been made. Professor Rosenbusch kindly looked
over some specimens sent him and pronounced the rocks to be typical bostonite.

16

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

[OCT. 19,

No. 66,

No. 11,

No. 102,

i^emp, |.

Morrison, f.

G. F. Barker

2.33

6.57

1.70

62.28

53.40

67.30

19.17
3.39

20.82
3.92

j 19.10

1.44

7.05

0.79

trace

1.53

trace

5.926

2.97

4.74

5.374

3.79

6.04

99.91

100.05

99.67

2.648.

in the slide, it is shown by the loss to have suffered some alteration.
No. 102, taken from the Vermont report, p. 585, is the cementing
magma of a breccia dike to be later described. No. 11 is abnormal
and is of the coarsely crystalline dike of Shelburne Point, referred
to above.

Loss

SiO^

AlA

Fe,03

CaO

MgO

K^O

Na^O

Sp. gr.

No. 11 was kindly analyzed by Mr. W. M. Morrison, resident
graduate in chemistry at Cornell University. The amount of soda
in No. 66 is very suggestive. As no well-marked plagioclase
appears in the slide, which is of a very homogeneous rock, the infer-
ence is strong that some soda orthoclase (anorthoclase) is present
and that the dike is really allied to the keratophyrs and pantellerites.
Years ago (1853-56) T. Sterry Hunt separated a number of feldspar
crystals from related dikes in the region of Montreal, and, as shown
by the accompanying analyses (I-IV inclusive), they furnish close
parallels. V and VI are analyses by Forstner of the anorthoclase
of the trachytic rocks of the island of Pantellera, and their simi-
larity with the older analyses of Hunt is very striking. Analysis
YII, by T. M. Chatard, of the keratophyr described by J. H. Sears,
from Marblehead Neck, is wonderfully like the others. The kerato-
phyr described by W. S. Bayley, from Pigeon Pt., Minn., is much
higher in silica (A. J. S., iii, xxxvii, 54).

L

n.

in.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

SiO.,

65.70

65.15

66.15

67.60

66.06

66.03

65.66

Al^Oj

20.80

20.55

19.75

18.30

19.24

19.37

20.05

FeO

_

^_

0.54

—

trace

Fe.Oj

—

—

—

1.40

—

1.53

trace

MnO

-_

^^

0.13

CaO

0.84

0.72

0.95

0.45

1.11

0.73

0.67

MgO

—

—

0.11

0.02

0.18

KjO

6.43

6.32

7.53

5.10

5.45

5.40

6.98

Na,0

6.52

6.67

5.19

5.85

7.63

7.57

6.56

Loss

0.50

0.50

0.55

0.25

none

none

0.41

100.79 99.99 100.12 98.95 100.14 100.65 100.64

I. T. S. Hunt, Feldspar from Brome (Canada), Trachyte, A. J. S., ii, xxxviii,

97; Geol. Canada, 1853-56.
II. " Feldspar from Sliefford, Canada, 1. c, p. 97. F. D. Adams has

described a rock from Shefford as quartz-free porphyry,
Geol. Canada, 1880, '81, '82, p. 10a.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 17

III. T. S. Hunt, Feldspar from Chambly, 1. c, p. 98.

IV. " Feldspar from ground-mass of Chambly dike after treatment

with dilute nitric acid, 1. c, p. 98.

V. and VI. H. Fiirstner, Zeitschr. f. Xtal., viii, 125, 202, 1883 ; Neues Jahrb.,

1884, ii, 171.
VII. J. H. Sears, On Keratophyre from Marblehead Neck, Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool., xvi, No. 9, p. 170.

In the further discussion of the basic dikes it will appear that in
the close association which they show in the field with bostonite we
have a mingling of rock types not unlike that long known at Mon-
treal,' ill many respects similar to that at Marblehead, near Boston,''
and to the dikes recently brought to notice near Rio Janeiro,
Brazil.^ In all three localities they are associated with elaeolite-
syenite. This latter rock has not yet been discovered nearer to
Lake Charaplain than Montreal, which is one hundred miles north
of Burlington. It is not improbable that elaeolite-syenite may yet
appear in the eastern Adirondacks.

The Breccia Bostonites.

On the east side of Shelburne Point, which is just south of Bur-
lington, and also on the west side, a broad dike (20 feet) outcrops.
It is undoubtedly continuous between. It is a most remarkable
rock, and consists of angular pieces of slate and red quartzite ce-
mented together by an igneous base. The cementing base is not
very fresh in the attainable specimens, but is clearly of the same
nature as the ground-mass of the bostonites. The included frag-
ments are angular and seldom show any absorption into the igneous
rock. Two explanations may be advanced for this dike. One, that
it has been intruded on a line of previous faulting and attrition,
which have broken up the walls and have left loose material to be
gathered up by the rising magma. This explanation has the greater

1 T. S. Hunt, papers cited nnder analyses I-IV above ; also, Geol. of
Canada, 1863, p. 655. B. J. Harrington, idem, 1877-78, p. 429. A. Lacroix,
Sur la Syenite-elaeolithique de Montreal, etc., Comptes Rendus, .June 2, 1890,
p. 1152, and Descriptions des Syenites nepehliniques de Pouzac, Hautes-Pyre-
n^es et de Montreal, etc.. Bull. Soc. Geol. France, 3, xiii, 1890, 511-558.

2 A. Hyatt, Remarks on the Porphyries of Marblehead, Mass., Proc. Boston
Soc. Nat. Hist., xviii, p. 220, 1876. T. T. Bouv6, The Origin of Porphyry,
idem, xviii, p. 217. M. E. Wadswortb, The Trachyte of Marblehead Neck,
idem, xxi, p. 288 ; Geology of Marblehead, idem, xxi, p. 306 ; Zircon Syenite
from Marblehead, idem, xxi, p. 406. W. 0. Crosby, Geology of Eastern Massa-
chusetts. J. S. Diller, The Felsites and their Associated Rocks North of Boston,
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vii, 165. J. H. Sears, Keratophyr from Marblehead
Neck, idem, xvi, 167.

* O. A. Derby, On Nepheline Rocks in Brazil, etc.. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc,
London, 1887, p. 457. F. Fr. Graefi", Mineralogisch. Petrograph. Untersuchung
von Elaeolith-syeniten von der Serra de Tingua, etc., Neues Jahrbuch, 1888,
ii, p. 222. Hunter and Rosenbuscb, Ueber Monchiquit ein Camptonitisches
Ganggestein aus der Gefolgschaft der Elaeolith-Syenit. Tscb., Min. u. Petrog.
Mitt., xi, 1890, p. 44.
Vol. XL— 2

18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 19,

weifjht with the writers. The other is that it represents only the
upper portion of a dike, and thus contains the float-material which
the advance of an i^-neous body would naturally gather from the
walls. The lack of such inclusions in the neighboring" dikes may be
due to the fact that their tops have been eroded. A still different
view has been advanced by Pves. Hitchcock as applicable to a second
similar dike, to which we now pass.

This second dike is much narrower, and is found on Nash's Point,
some miles south. It is about twelve feet wide, and consists of
somewhat rounded fragments of Archaean norite, red Cambrian
(piartzite, and Hudson River slate, chiefly gathered in the middle
portion, and all cemented together by the bostonite ground-mass,
whose analysis was given above. President Hitchcock^ mentions,
also, gneiss, hornblende-schist with garnets, quartz, gray sand-
stone, and black Trenton limestone. Probably what he called
granite we have called norite. The slides of norite and quartzite
exhibit dynamical effects of a marked character, as the crystals have
been strained and shattered. These inclusions indicate a deep-
seated source for the igneous rock — at least beneath the norites and
gneisses, and one or two inclusions in a basic dike from Burlington
indicate the same for the basic dikes. President Hitchcock was
impressed by the rounded, or, as he interpreted it, the waterworn
character of the inclusions. He was led by this to regard the dike
as originating from a crack which had become previously filled with
deliris from above. This deln'is he considers to have been partially
melted or sintered in the metamorphism of the region. As some of
the boulders are limestone, and as there are many undoubtedly intru-
sive igneous dikes within a few feet, we regard the rounded character
as due to partial absorption, and consider the foreign bodies as inclu-
sions. Brecciated porphyries formed of a broken eruptive rock that
has been re-cemented have been mentioned by Pumpelly from Pilot
Knob'^ and by Crosby^ from eastern Massachusetts, but the phe-
nomena are obviously different from those here described.

The Basic Dikes.

The basic dikes are all compact, dark rocks, that to ordinary
microscopic examination, give almost no indication of their consti-
tution. The only apparent minerals are feldspars in the coarser
diabases, and an occasional glistening hornblende or augite prism
in the more basic dikes. The thin sections exhibit a series of
niineralogical mixtures extending from very typical ophitie diabase
through camptnnites, in which the dark silicates become idiomorphic,
and the feldspars recede, to aggregates of augite and hornblende,

1 E. Hitchcock, On Certain Conglomerated and Brecciated Trachytic Dikes
in Vermont, etc., Proc. A. A. A. S., xiv, 156 ; Geol. of Vermont, vol. ii, p. 583.

2 R. Pumpelly, Geological Survey of Missouri, Preliminary Report on the
Iron Ores and Coal Fields. E. llaworth, Missouri Geological Survey, 1891,
Rull. V.

3 W. 0. Crosby, Geology of Eastern Massachusetts, p. 50.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 19

lacking feldspar entirely, and having comparatively little glass.
Olivine is occasionally seen in a fresh condition, bnt in most dikes
an alteration product not always satisfactory alone indicates its
probable original presence. The basic dikes are described under
the following three types, diabase including olivine-diabase, camp-
tonite, and moncLiquite.

The Diabase.

The true diabase dikes are principally, if not quite entirely found
in the crystalline Archaean areas. They are thus on the west side
of the lake, and in several cases back in the mountains. Diabase
is the characteristic type of rock that forms the dikes which so
plentifully intersect the lenses of magnetite.

The rocks exhibit, under the microscope, the characteristic ophitic
structure with occasional radiating arrangement of feldspars
(divergent-strahlig of Lessen). These have, at times, a dark core
which follows the outline of the crystal, and is, doubtless, an
altered portion stained by infiltration. The plagioclase was sepa-
rated from a coarse dike from near Port Kent, and afforded the fol-
lowing analysis: —

I. II. At. Ratio.

Loss 0.72

SiO^ 57.82 58.38 .973 11

AI./J3 28.16 28.43 .270 3

CaO 7.72 ■ 7.79 .139 %

Na.p 5.35 5.40 .087 1

99.77 100.00

From this it appears that the feldspar belongs in the andesite
series. Column II is recalculated to throw out the loss on ignition.

The augite tends to become at times idiomorphic, and marks a
passage into the augite-camptonites. This tendency is wide-spread,
and indicates the close affinities of the two rocks. The augite
varies from pink to greenish. In the heavy residues obtained by
panning crushed material, some grains of hypersthene were found,
although none were ever noted in the slides. The discovery is
interesting in connection with its recently found presence in Triassic,
diabase.' Subordinate biotite is occasionally seen in scales with
magnetite, and is regarded as an original mineral.'' Irregular
grains of magnetite are abundant.

The process of alteration seems to be the same wherever noted.
The bisilicates pass into chlorite, or into what in other cases appears
to be serpentine. The latter is a yellow or amber colored mass,
not always showing a very marked, aggregate character. It is
lacking in pleochroism and is not very strongly refractive. Some
dikes are in such an advanced stage of alteration ihat they present

^ Campbell and Brown, Composition of certain Mesozoic Igneous Rocks from
Virginia, Bull. Geol. Soc. of America, 1891, p. 339.

2 Wadsworth takes a diflerent view of similar biotite, regarding it as sec-
ondary, Bull, ii, Min. Geol. Surv. p. G5, and PI. iii.

20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [oCT. 19,

almost nothinf^ of a dia.irnostic character. Clay or kaolin, calcite,
limonite, and indefinite dirt make up the slide. Very little recog-
nizable epidote has been noted.

An interesting and exceptional alteration is afforded by the dike
at Palmer Hill, near Ausable Forks. The feldspar has yielded a
colorless, negative, uniaxial, rather brightly polarizing mineral with
abundant rectangular cleavages. This is scapolite. It often forms
secondary nests with quartz. Scapolite as an alteration product
from plagioclase has long been known in connection with various
rocks which are associated with the apatite deposits of Norwa}^, and
has more recently been discovered in the same relations in Canada.^
The process has been discussed by Judd.'^ It is urged that solutions
of sodium cliloride penetrate the plagioclase along " solution
planes,"^ after which dynamic metamorphism in connection with the
sodium chloride changes the plagioclase to scapolite. In the present
instance there seems to have been no d3'namic metamorphism, but
it is likely that infiltrating sodium chloride or of hydrochloric acid
may have aided the change. Lacroix has also recently described
the alteration of plagioclase to dipyr, in a diabase of the Pyrenees.*

The Palmer Hill dike yielded, on analj^sis, the results in column
I. By its side is placed for comparison No. II, which is the
analysis of a diabase from near Boston, and No. Ill is one from
the Keene Valley.

I.

SiOj

Al,03

Fe,03

FeO

CaO

MgO

MiiO

KjO

Na.,0

Ti(l

P,0

COj

FeS^

Loss

TiO,
P,0.

Sp. gr.

Kemp.

II. Hobbs.5

III. Leec

4.5.46

48.75

43.41

19.94

17.17

19.42

15.3(j

0.41

5.72

—

13.ti2

6.69

8.32

8.82

9.11

2.95

3.37

5.98

—

0.91

—

3.21

2.40

0.47

2.12

1.63

4.39

—

0.99

0.35

—

0.68

—

—

trace

2.00

—

trace

—

2.30

—

3.00

99. 6G

100.17

100.54

2.945

2.D85

' F. D. Adams and A. C. Lawson, On some Canadian Rocks containing
Scapolite, etc., Canadian Record of Science, 1888, p. 185. The paper gives
copious references to the literature and a valuable review of the same.

2 J. W. Judd, on the Processes by which a Plagioclase Feldspar is converted
into Scapolite, Mineralogical Magazine, vol. viii, p. 186.

3 For the description of solution planes, see J. W. Judd, Q. J. G. S. xli,
383, 1885 ; xlii, p. 82, 1886 ; Mineralog. Mag. vii, p. 81, 1886.

* A. Lacroix, Sur les Phenomenes de Contact de la Syenite elaeolithique de
Pouzac, Comptes Rendus, No. 110, p. 1011, 1890,

5 W. H. Hobbs, On the Petrographical Characters of a Dike of Diabase in
the Boston Basin, Bull. Mus. Conip. ZoiJl., xvi, 1.

6 A. R. Leeds, Notes on the Lithology of the Adirondacks, 30th Ann. Rep.
N. Y. State Museum, p. 102.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 21

In I all the iron was estimated as Fe„0.^. The excess of potash
over soda in I and II is exceptional. While the rather abundant
biotite of I in part accounts for it, the amount of this mineral is
hardly enough to furnish it all. The silica is also lower than in
the Triassic diabases, which afford about 50-53 per cent.

Olivine appears in a few dikes fresh enough to recoirnize, and an
alteration-product is shown by a great many more which may have
resulted from it. In other respects the olivine diabases are not
different from those without this mineral.

Diabase, including olivine diabase, is an extremely common dike
rock in the Archaean rocks of Canada and the northern United
States, and it is probable that most of those simply recorded as trap
belong also with this species.

The Camptonites.

The name camptonite was originally employed by Rosenbusch
to designate those dike rocks which consist of hornblende and plagio-
clase, but varying amounts of augite are also often present. They
lack the ophitic structure of diabase in that the hornblende or augite
is prevailingly idiomorphic. The diabases of dikes thus pass into
them by the idiomorphic development of the dark silicates. In the
Lake Champlain region there are dikes of both the augitic and the
hornblendic variety. We have employed the name augite-cam[»-
tonite when wishing to make a distinction.

The camptonites consist of brown basaltic hornblende, augite,
plagioclase, magnetite, and occasionally a. little intermingled glassy
matter. The minerals are markedly panidiomorphic and the large
hornblendes and augites give at times a porphyritic character. The
hornblende is the most conspicuous and attractive component. It
is strongly pleochroic, brown to yellow, and, in distinction from
the augite, shows no zonal structure. A small second generation
consists of minute acicular crystals, which are a miniature repro-
duction of the larger forms. The augite likewise forms two genera-
tions. The older and larger consists of zonal prismatic crystals with
dark green cores and light yellow rims, which may differ 10° in
extinction. The second generation are minute and acicular. The
plagioclase is less perfectly developed than the bisilicates. Several
camptonites contain abundant olivine.

The camptonites all contain less than 45 per cent. SiO,, in this
region, but in other respects present great variability. They do
not afford more than (! per cent, of alkalies, with soda usually in
excess. The following table illustrates the range of composition : —

22

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

[OCT. 19,

T.

ir.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

SiOj .

43J)0

41.00

41.94

40.95

48.19

44.87

AlA •

17.02

21.36

15.36

16.45

16.79

17.28

FeA .

13.68

13.44

3.27

13.47

18.37

11.04

FeO

—

—

9.89

—

—

—

MnO .

—

—

0.25

0.33

—

traop.

TiO,

. —

—

4.15

3.39

—

6.74

CaO .

8.1,5

10.40

9.47

10.53

6.85

7.. 54

MfrO .

6.84

3.85

5.01

6.10

1.32

, 4.95

K,0

3.02

1.31

0.19

1.28

1.11

2.62

Na^O .

. 2.84

2.86

5.15

4.00

5.59

1.61

P2O5 •

,

0.29

—

0.45

CO2

, —

—

2.47

—

—

—

Loss

4.35

5.00

3.29

3.84

2.31

2.49

Total

99.40 99.22 100.44 100.63 100.53 99.59

I. Fairliaven, Vt. By .1. F. Kemp, Amer. Geologist, Aug. 1889, p. 97.

II. Proctor, Vt. do. do. do.

III. Campton Falls, N. H. G. W. Hawes, Amer. .Jonrii. Sci., iii, xvii, 14.

IV. Montreal. B. .J. Harrington, Geol. Snrvey of Canada, 1877-78, p. 439.

V. Forest of Dean, Orange Co., N. Y. J. F. Kemp, Amer. Journ. Sci., April,

1888, p. 331.

VI. Fort Montgomery, Orange Co., N. Y. By L. M. Dennis for J. F. Kemp,

Amer. Naturalist, Aug. 1888, p. 694.

The Monchiquites.

The name monchiquite has been lately introduced by Rosenbusch^
to include a group of dike rocks consisting of olivine, augite, horn-
blende, biotite (one or all three of the last named), and a glassy
base. It is derived from the Monchiqne Mts. in Portugal, where
such dikes were discovered in 18.50. In the further development of
the Lake Champlain dikes toward the extreme basic end of the
series there are a number consisting chiefly of zonal augite, small
brown hornblende and biotite crystals, and olivine, in an unresolv-
able base that is only very feebly refractive, if not actually glassy.
Yet some slides do show minute plagioclase crystals in the ground
mass, but not in sufficient development to throw them into the camp-
tonites. Magnetite is the only additional mineral. The augite is
the same as that described under the camptonites, and is in two
generations. It makes up at times almost if not quite the entire rock
and the analysis (No. 14) given below must indicate the approxi-
mate composition of this mineral. Magnetite is the only other com-
ponent of note. The hornblende is also like that of the campton-
ites, but when the second generation becomes very small it is very
difficult to distinguish it from biotite. In the altered portions of the
base they seem much more abundant than in the fresh, as they
stand out with very sharp definition. The alteration-product is
calcite. The hornblende in one or two instances replaces the augite

1 M. Hunter and H. Rosenbuscli, Ueber Moncliiquit, ein Camptonitisclies
Ganggestein, etc., Tsch. Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., xi, 1891, p. 445.

1891.]

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

23

entirely and affords a very beautiful slide. The olivine is seldom
fresh enough to be certainly identified, but as masses of a g-reen
alteration product are almost always pre.sent its occurrence is proba-
bly wide- spread. Professor Rosenbusch has, with characteristic
kindness, looked over some slides of certain of these dikes, and fully
indorses the determination of them as monchiquite, which had been
previously made by us.

The following analyses illustrate the range in composition : —

SiO.,

A 1,03

Fe,03

FeO

CaO

M-O

K.p

Na,,0

Loss

No. 2.

40.37

17.86

14.45

0.38

17.61

1.63

0.83

1.29

4.47

No. 14.

4.5.13

18.06

11.88

0.32

10.17

1.12

6.06

3.57

3.04

No. 21.

44.30

7.92

25.38

not (let.

14.67

1.98

4.35

99.39

99.35

98.60

No. II also contains P^O^, 0.39. No. 2 and No. 14 were kindly
analyzed by Mr. W. H. Morrison, graduate student in chemistry
at Cornell University, and No. 21 by Mr. E. M. Chamot, assistant
in the same laboratory. The rocks are thus very basic and may,
as in No. 21, be very low in alkalies.

The above-mentioned basic dikes and the bostonites are very
commonly associated with elaeolite-syenite, and we think they
furnish good reasons for anticipating the discovery of this rock in
the region of the Adirondacks. The dikes may, however, be an
extreme southern development of the great eruptive activity near
Montreal. We think their intrusion accompanied the upheaval of
the Green Mountains.

During the field-work of the second summer Mr. A. S. Eakle, now
of the geological department of Cornell University, accompanied the
writers, and acknowledgments are due him for much valuable as-
sistance.

Prof. Martin asked the lecturer if the smaller dikes might not
perhaps be regarded as originating from the larger ones. Prof.
Kemp replied that they could hardly be so regarded, and added
that the nearest large masses of eruptive rock were in the vicinity
of Montreal.

Meeting adjourned.

24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [OCT. 26,

October 26, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Dr. a, a. Julien in the chair. About forty persons present.

The minutes of the previous meeting (October 19th) were read
and approved.

The Eggs of the Plover.

Dr. H. C. Bolton stated, when in England last summer he
noticed that the eggs of the common plover or Lapwing {Chara-
dri'inse), eaten as a delicacy, have a peculiar appearance when
hard-boiled, the white remaining quite transparent and permitting
an unobstructed view of the yelk within.

This fact so commonly known to English epicures does not seem
to be familiar to all ornithologists. Occasional mention of similar
phenomena is found however. Mr. George W. Peck, in a work
entitled "Melbourne and the Chincha Islands" (New York, 1854),
describes the Guano Islands oif the coast of Peru, and speaking of
the myriads of birds says: "The Cholos climbed the precipices
after eggs like so many monkeys. They obtained a great many,
and we had omlets made of them which were excellent; in boiling
or frying them the white remains transparent" (page 186). For
this reference Dr. A. R. Ledoux should receive thanks.

These facts point to a peculiar condition of the albumen in certain
eggs that has long been known to chemists. Fremy and Valen-
ciennes, in 18.5'7, found that there are three conditions of albumen
differing in chemical properties, yet identical in composition. The
first is coagulated by heat becoming opaque, and is precipitated by
nitric acid. The second also coagulates on heating, but remains
transparent. The third is not affected by heat nor by nitric acid.
The first condition exists, according to these French authors, in the
eggs of different species of gallinaceous birds; the second is peculiar
to the eggs of swimming and wading birds, and the third is peculiar
to the eggs of predaceous birds and of some kinds of })erchiug and
climbing birds. {Ann. chini. phi/s. [3] L. 1.38.)

The subject seems to be worthy of further investigation.

Dr. Thomas Morong was then introduced, and delivered the
opening lecture of the public course entitled " Paraguay, the Land
and the People," illustrated by lantern views. At the close of the
lecture a vote of thanks was tendered Dr. Morong and the meeting
adjourned.

lvS91.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 25

November 2, 1891.

Regular Business Meeting.

Professor J. K. Rees in the chair. Thirteen persons present.

The minutes of the previous Business Meeting (October 5) were
read and approved.

Mr. Charles R. Mann was nominated as a Resident Member
by Mr. Harold Jacoby.

Dr. H. T. Vulte was elected Librarian by ballot.
The following persons were then elected Corresponding- Members
by ballot :

Jose G. Aguilera, of Mexico City,

L. Clerc, of Ekaterinburg Russia,
and the following Resident Members by ballot:

Dewitt J. Apgar,

Dr. Clark Bell,

Prof. Albert H. Chester,

Ernest du Yivier,

Mrs. Edward Heylyn,

Arthur Hollick,

Prof. James F. Kemp,

George H. Knight,

Ernest Lederle,

J. PiERPONT Morgan,

Heinrich Ries,

Wm. C. Schermerhorn,

Nelson Smith,

Charles Proteus Steinmetz,

Miss Virginia Yaughan.

The Astronomical Section then organized with Prof. Rees in
the chair ; the minutes of the section were read by the Secretary,
Mr. Jacoby.

The following paper was read :

On the Reduction of Transit Observations by Least Squares.

BY HAROLD JACOBY.

[This paper will appear in one of the monthly notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society.]

26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [nOV. 9,

Prof. Rees referred to the publication of the index of plates pre-
sented to the Observatory of Columbia College by Mr. Ruther-
ruRD. This led to correspondence with Prof. Edward S. Holden
of the Lick Observatory, who requested a series of copies of the
negatives of the moon. These were made by Mr. Monell, forty
in number, and sent to Prof. Holden, who is much pleased with
them. Mr. Holden intends, eventually, to publish what may be
called the "Lick Map of the Moon," embodying results of examina-
tions made of the Lick Photos by observers in Europe and America.
Prof. Rees referred to the especial value of Rutherfurd's Photo-
graphs of the Moon in examining the question as to changes
going on in the lunar surface.

Meeting adjourned.

November 9, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Dr. a. a. Julien in the chair. About nineteen persons present.

The minutes of the previous meeting (Oct. 26th) were read and
approved.

Dr. Rusby exhibited the head of a South American Indian
curiously preserved, leaving the hair and features intact, while the
whole cranium is reduced to the size of a billiard ball. Dr.
Friederich and others made a few remarks in regard to this
method of preserving the head as a trophy, a custom common
among certain tribes. The reduction is supposed to be effected by
alternate boiling and compression ; certainly the process is slow
and tedious.

The following paper was then read :

The Ancient Inscription on a "Wall at Chatata, Tennessee.

BY A. l. rawson.

Mr. J. H. Hooper found what appeared to be a headstone to
a grave, on a wooded ridge on his farm, in Bradley County,
Tennessee, about thirteen miles from the railroad at Cleveland.
He dug around the stone, expecting to find a name, but instead
found only curious unknown letters or marks. He dug deeper
and uncovered other stones that formed a wall of three courses,

1891.]

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

2t

in all about two feet thick, eight feet high, and about sixteen
feet of its length, as measured from the north end, was covered
with the letters, arranged in wavy, nearly parallel and diagonal
lines. The wall was traced and examined in many places for a dis-
tance of nearly a thousand feet, its coarse marked on the surface
by stones like No. 1, projecting a few inches above the surface of the
ground, and twenty-five or thirty feet apart. Seventy-five feet of
the south end of the wall was bent at an angle of 15°"to 20° east.
The wall ended in a hollow of the hill.

incM.lt

Wih-^rxTr^M^jK'^-f V^-v-f^

'^^^^^S^rT^'Pj^CV

CO-

^') \?Hi

In March, 1891, the Cleveland Express printed a short
of the discovery, written by Mr. Carson of that place, who
the wall. In the Sunday Sun, New York, June 7th, I pu
short notice of the find, with engravings made from my
made at the place, May 21st. The engravings in this ar
from my sketches corrected by photographs.

The stone is dark-red sandstone, and the wall lies along
of a ridge of that kind of stone which trends north
flanked by limestone east and west, and

an
extending from

account
had seen
blished a
sketches
tide are

the crest
d south,
the Hia-

28 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [nOV. 9,

wassee Kiver north to Chattanooga, south where it dips below the
bed of the Tennessee River.

The surface of the west side of the inner course of stones is cut
into rounded ridges with hollows between, and the characters are
raised on the crest of the ridges, and are from two inches to three
inches in width, with a few larger groups.

Mr. J. Hampden Porter says, in a letter from Chatata, October
21st: "It is not a wall but a red sandstone ridge, faced with red,
slaty, and yellow clays to an unknown depth. No implements and
no traces of previous excavations have been found." The faces of
the other course of stones are level and not cut into grooves. Be-
tween the courses is found a dark-red cement, which is probably
formed of red clay with salts carried down by water.

Mr. Porter says: "As a rule inscriptions are intended to be
read I do not remember any instance of a designed con-
cealment like this."

The architect of the Pharos at Alexandria, Egypt, cut his mime
on the stone, covered it with plaster, and moulded Pharaoh's name
in the covering. Time tore off' the plaster and exposed the builder's
name. This concealment in Tennessee may have been effected in a
time of invasion or some great social calamity.

Eight hundred and seventy-two characters have been examined,
many of them duplicates, and a few imitations of animal forms, the
moon and other objects. Accidental imitation of oriental alphabets
are numerous.

The rock was chiseled in the form of letter intended, a hard
cement worked in and raised above the surface, and a cement placed
over the whole, against which the outer course of stones was placed,
fitting closely. A piece of this covering cement with the letter-form
in its surface is engraved here. The bird or other animal is the
largest of that kind of figures that is found on the wall. Some of
these forms recall those on the Dighton Rock, and may belong to
the same age. How many other hidden inscriptions there may be
in this, the geologically oldest continent, it is impossible to say but
delightful to conjecture. This wall would be a valuable and in-
teresting addition to the Metropolitan Museum.

Considerable discussion followed the reading of this paper, and
was participated in by Drs. Julien and Bolton, and Prof. Martin
and others.

Prof. D. S. Martin spoke at some length upon the features of
peculiar interest connected with the series of scientific meetings
held during August, 1891, at Washington, particularly the Inter-
national Geological Congress. He described in outline the general
plans and arrangements for the session and the topics that were
discussed on the several days. The exhibition of geological
material and literature was referred to and some of its leading
features specified; among these, the great display made by the

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 29

U. S. Geological Survey of reports, monographs, maps, reliefs, and
pliotographs ; the large collection of Mexican rocks exhibited by
ihe delegates from that country ; the remarkable Ordovician fish-
remains recently collected and described by Prof. Walcott from near
Canon City, which carry back the evidences of fish-life to a horizon
corresponding to the Trenton limestone of the Eastern United States ;
the illustrations of mountain structure and rock-folding produced by
Mr. Bailey Willis, by laterally compressing layers of clay and
plaster under heavy weight ; and, of extreme interest, the photo-
graphs and specimens of glacial markings in Silurian rocks, exposed
to view by the removal of overlying beds in Scandinavia, and ap-
parently affording clear evidence of an early Paleozoic ice period.
The several days' programs were referred to further ; the ex-
haustive classification by Prof. Chamberlain of quaternary deposits,
introductory to the discussion of that subject; the second day's
topic of Geological Correlation, and the views of leading specialists,
both American and foreign, as to the methods, principles, and
possibilities in that great field; and, later, the subject of Geological
Cartography, with a descrii)tion of Major Powell's account of the
comprehensive and elaborate scheme of combined colors and patterns
adopted for the extensive work of the U. S. Geological Survey.
This Prof. Martin illustrated with blackboard drawings and one of
the new survey maps.

Meeting adjourned.

November 16, 1891.
Stated Meeting.

Mr. p. H. Dudley in the chair. About seventy-five persons pre-
sent.

The minutes of the previous meeting (November 9th) were read
and approved.

Professor Henry F. Osborn, of Columbia College, was pro-
posed as a Resident Member by Dr. N. L. Britton.

Prof. Otis T. Mason, of Washington, D. C, was then intro-
duced and delivered a lecture entitled

Woman's Part in the Earlier Civilizations,

illustrated by numerous lantern slides.

At the close of the discourse a vote of thanks was extended to
the lecturer, and the meeting adjourned.

30

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

[NOV. 23,

November 23, 1891.
Stated Meeting.
Vice-President Allen in the chair. About forty persons present.
The minutes of the previous meeting (November 16th) were
read and approved.

Professor Trowbridge presented two sketches relating to animal
mechanics, and ilkistrating a discovery by his son C. C. Trowbridge,
connected with the mechanism by which certain birds secure their
food bv boring in soft ground.

The" slietches represent the head and bill of the Hudsonian
Godwit. Sketch No. 1 — the mandibles closed as in the act of bor-
ing- ; and No. 2, the bill as in the act of seizing its food under
ground.

Professor Trowbridge stated that it is well known to naturalists
and sportsmen that in the boring birds, such as the godwits, snipe,
and woodcock, the upper mandible at its extremity is quite flexible,
and may easily be bent upwards as shown in sketch No. 2. But
that it has not been known, as far as he is aware, that this bending
is also under the control of the bird, and is accomplished by certain
muscles about the base of the mandibles; the muscles being con-

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 31

nected mechanically, in an interesting manner, with the extremity
of the upper mandible — along the cavity of this mandible.

The fact that immediately after the death of the bird, when the
bill is in its flexible condition, this opening of the bill, at its ex-
tremity, may be accomplished by any one who knows how to pro-
duce the proper action of the muscles, was discovered by Mr. C. C.
Trowbridge about two years ago, v/hile examining specimens of the
Hadsoniau godwit that he had shot. An examination of the
Avoodcock by him showed similar action.

The solution of the object of the flexibility of the upper mandi-
ble at its extremity, connected with the fact that the opening of the
bill at the end (as in sketch No. 2) is under the control of the bird,
is doubtless as follows :

When the bill is forced into soft around it must be closed to its
very extremity ; it then acts like an awl. To open the bill and seize
an object reached, if both maiuliljles were hard and inflexible through-
out their whole length it would be necessary for the bird to enlarge
the hole around its bill along its whole extent ; an operation requiring
much force, and possibly the opening and closing would be in such
case impracticable. But the opening at the extremity to the slight
extent necessary to take in its food is comparatively a simple mat-
ter. Moreover, when the food is seized and the bill withdrawn
through the small hole made by the bill the effect during the whole
of thewithdrawal of the bill is to cause the food to be clasped more
firmly and securely. The operation of withdrawing the food would
otherwise be very difficult, and possibly impracticable.

Professor Trowbridge also presented the results of some further
observations made by Mr. C. C. Trowbridge, on the locking or
overlapping of the primary wing feathers by certain birds during
flight.

Attention was called to the fact that about four years ago (Oct.
It, 1887) he had read a paper before the Academy descril)ing this
locking of the primaries of certain hawks, discovered by Mr. C. C.
Trowbridge, and stated that, as the number of specimens then ex-
amined was small, and although the fact of this habitual locking or
overlapping, especially during soaring flight, seemed completely
estal)lished for certain hawks ; yet from time to time observations
had been continued; a most remarkable opportunity for such ob-
servations having occurred this autumn during the month of
September.

Large flights of hawks migrating southerly took place near New
Haven on the 8th, 9th, and Uth of September. On those days the
wind was northerly and high, and advantage was taken, for the
purpose of procuring specimens, of a high hill around which ha^yks
and eagles were circling. Large numbers passed within shooting-
distance, generally soaring, but frequently soaring and flapping
alternately.

On SeiDtember 8th nine hawks were shot, on September 9th
three, on September 14th fourteen, in all twenty-six, embracing

32 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [nOV. 23,

four species — the " Sharpshinned," the "Broad wing-ed," the
" Marsh," and the " Fish" hawks.

The birds were examined and notes made of the condition of the
wing feathers as soon as the birds reached the ground. Of the
twenty-six birds which were shot twenty-three were found to have
the primaries locked or overlapped along that portion of the feathers
which were emarginately cut.

Of the three which were counted as not having primaries locked,
one was a fish hawk, which was at first only " Aving tipped" by the
shot, and which was found flapping along the ground in the under-
growth of the woods where it had fallen ; and another was a small
hawk which ran some distance through the bushes before being
caught. The third was moulting and its primaries had only partly
grown out, and but one primary was locked.

Professor Trowbridge stated that he was present during the
observations of the 14th of September, and many more birds might
have been shot; but he concluded that enough had been killed to
confirm absolutely the facts reported at the meeting of the Academy
above referred to.

The following papers were then read by Mr. George F. Kunz:

1. Some Observations on the Opal Mines of Hungary, and the
Occurrence of Opal in Washington and Oregon.

2. On the Origin of Garnets and Associated Minerals in the
Garnet District of Bohemia and Saxony.

Both papers being illustrated by lantern slides.

After the reading of these papers considerable discussion ensued,
in which Prof. Kemp, Drs. Julien and Britton took part.

Dr. Britton, calling attention to the approach of Christmas,
moved that when the Academy adjourns on December 21st it do
adjourn until January 4th, 1892. Carried.

Mr. Garrettson called attention to the death of Dr. John C.
Jay, the oldest member of the Academy, formerly active in the
Lyceum of Natural History, and its Treasurer from 1836 to 1843.
His valuable couchological collection was bought by Miss Wolfe
and presented to the American Museum of Natural Histor}^, Cen-
tral Park. Dr. Jay became a member of the Lyceum in 1832, and
died last week.

Meeting adjourned.

1891. J NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 33

November 30, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Yice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair. About thirty persons
present.

The minutes of the previous meeting (November 23d) were read
and approved.

The following paper was then read, entitled :

The Clays of the Hudson River Valley.

BY HEINRICH RIES, COLUMBIA COLLEGE.

(Published bt Permission of the N. Y. State Museum.)

(Illustrated by lantern slides.)

Summary of Contents. — 1. General description of the clay deposits, with spe-
cial reference to lliose at Cornwall and Thiells. Unstratified material covering
the clay. — 2. Delta deposits. — 3. Terraces. — 1. Conclusions. — 5. Organic re-
mains. — 6. Concretions. — 7. Tables.

A characteristic topographic feature of the Hudson River Yalley
between New York and Albany is formed by the natural terraces
which extend more or less continuously along both sides of the
river.

These terraces are underlain by three types of quaternary de-
posits : —

1. Drift.

2. Delta deposits.

3. Estuary deposits of fine stratified sand, and blue and buff clays.
These estuary deposits indicate a period of submergence, during

which the water covering the land was very quiet.

The clays extend more or less continuously from Sing Sing to
Albany, with the exception of two narrow portions of the river,
viz., from Jones's Point to Cornwall and from New Hamburgh to
Staatsburgh, where little or no clay is found, the terrace, if present,
being usually underlain by till. BeloAv Sing Sing the clay occurs
in isolated patches of no great extent. ( W. W. Mather, Geol. First
District, N. Y., p. 133.)

The different members of the estuary deposits are not always
present in any one spot. Sometimes only two occur, rarely only
one. The clay is usually horizontal, but in a few instances dips
slightly towards the river; the stratification is more distinct and
the layers thinner in the buff c[?i\. The blue is more plastic than
the buff and makes a better brick. Both effervesce readily with acid
from the amount of lime in them and are known as marly clays.

At most localities where the clay is exposed the blue has a greater
thickness than the buff, though there are cases in which only the
buff is present.
Vol. XI.— 3

34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [nOV. 30,

Usually the different members of the deposit are separated by-
well-marked lines. There are times, however, when the blue shades
into the buff and the latter into the stratified sand, this being always
the upper member while the blue is the lower.

At some localities the clay layers are not over an inch thick and
alternate with equally thin layers of sand or sandy clay. Such al-
ternation is found at Haverstraw, Stony Point, Fishkill, New Wind-
sor, Cornwall, Croton, Dutchess Junction, Catskill, and Port Ewen.
At all these localities except the last two AVe find the clay covered
by or associated with delta deposits, and this interlamination of the
clay and sand is probably due to variations in the rapidity of the
river entering at those points.

The delta of Catskill Creek has recently been found at Leeds,
some two miles back from the Hudson, and the delta of Rondout
Creek will probably be found by following up that stream to the
shoreline of the ancient estuary.

Ice-scratched boulders are often found in the clay, some of them
six feet in diameter.

The thickness of the clay is very variable (see Table I), due to
the irregular form of the underlying surface. Sometimes the clay
rests on loose till, or hardpan, or, as at Glasco, on the upturned
edges of the shales. At Verplank and Montrose the clay lies in
basins scooped out of the rock by the glacier.

From Albany to Catskill the clay is usually underlain by modi-
fied drift of a dark gray or black color, and consisting of pebbles of
shale and quartz and sand which is mostly comminuted shale. This
sand is used for tempering the clay in the manufacture of bricks,
but at Catskill contains too much lime for this purpose. The.se
underlying masses of sand and gravel are probably kames; the ma-
terials composing them show a cross-stratification in many places,
they having probably been deposited by the waters rushing from
the glacier. At Coeyman's Landing this material is faulted in
three places, and at Hudson to the rear of Fitzgerald's yard there
are five faults in a space of fifteen feet.

Borings have been made in the clay at several localities, to wit:
At Jover's yard near Roseton a well was sunk 175 feet through 80
feet of clay and 95 feet of sand and gravel, and this added to the
height of the upper limit of the clay above river-level gives us a
total thickness of 180 feet at this point. At Rose's yard to the
south of Jover's, a boring was made from river-level 135 feet
through blue clay, which added to the 108 feet of clay above river-
level gives a total thickness of 243 feet. At Haverstraw the clay
is known to extend 100 feet below river-level.

There is a very interesting clay deposit between Cornwall and
Newburgh. The clay layers are in many places wrinkled and in
some cases pressed together so as to obliterate the stratification.
We also find several terraces of small extent at this locality, to
which there are no corresponding ones on the other side of the
river ; and finally the clay rests on the glaciated surface of the rock.-

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 35

I am inclined to think that the disturbance at this locality was pro-
duced by one or more land-slips.

At Cornwall the upper terrace is underlain by till, and this we
find to be the usual succession. In only two instances was the
upper terrace found to have the clay beneath.

Going further down the river we come to llaverstraw. Here we
find three terraces, the upper one underlain by till containing large
boulders; this drift dips under the clay, as can be seen by a section
exposed at the south end of the village and to the rear of T. Chrys-
tie's yard.

Some two miles west of Haverstraw along the N. J. & N. Y. R.
K. between Thiells and Mt. Ivy is a very interesting little basin-
shaped clay deposit of elliptical outline. It is not over 18 feet thick,
as determined by boring. The clay is underlain by till and over-
lain by two to three feet of the same material containing small ice-
.scratched boulders. The valley in which this deposit lies contains
numerous ridges of drift, whose longer axes lie parallel to the
direction of the valley. A section of one of them is exposed near
the clay deposit. This latter was probably formed in a small tem-
porary lake under the ice.

At Stony Point the upper surface of the clay is very uneven and
is covered by two to eight feet of unstratified material consisting of
coarse sand and cobblestones. A similar deposit is found over-
lying the clay at Low Point above Fishkill. Also at Dutchess
Junction the clay is covered by the same kind of material, this latter
locality being the only one where any stratification is observable in
the mass. The layers dip towards the river.

The delta deposits of the streams tributary to the Hudson are of
great interest. They afford us an idea of the former size of these
streams, and also indicate the amount of submergence which took
place at the several points.

These delta deposits are made up of two members : 1st, the thinly
stratified loamy clays which were deposited a short distance from
the mouth of the river ; and, 2d, the coarse, cros.s-bedded sands and
gravels which were deposited at its mouth.

The following streams between New York and Albany have
formed delta deposits (as noted by Dr. Merrill, Amer. Journ. Sci.,
June, 1891) : Wappinger's Creek, IS^ew Hamburgh ; Fishkill Creek ;
Quassaic Creek, Newburgh ; Moodna River, Cornwall ; Indian
Creek, Cold Spring; Peekskill ; Pocantico River, Tarrytown ; Saw-
mill River, Yonkers; Tibbitt's Brook, Van Cortlandt ; Minisceongo
Creek, Haverstraw.

All of these deltas have been largely eroded by the streams which
formed them, and little is left of them at the present day.

Dr. Merrill (Amer. Journ. Sci., June, 1891) considers it highly
probable that some of these deltas once filled a large portion of the
valley in the Highlands. At Jones's Point opposite Peekskill there
is a deposit of thinly stratified loamy clay which may have formed
a portion of the secondary cone of Peekskill Delta ; also at Rose-

36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [nOV. 30,

ton there is a similar deposit which may belong to the delta of Wap-
pinger's Creek, which discharges at New Hamburg, about one and
a half miles further up the river.

In general, the upper limit of the clay increases northward, as
does also the terrace-level. To illustrate the latter point, we have
the following altitudes, those marked with an * being given by Dr.
Merrill : —

East Shore.

West Shore.

Croton,

100

100

Haverstraw.

PeekHkill,

120

185*

West Point.

200

Coriiwa]!.

Fishkill,

205

205

New burgh.

207

Port Eweii.

340*

Schenectady,

The measurements apply to what is probably the upper terrace.
At some localities we find more than one terrace, thus: —

Athens, 2. a 3 ? Stony Point, 3.

Port Ewen, 2. Peekskill, 2.

Cornwall, 3. Fishkill, 2.

Storm King, 2. Schodack, 2.

Table No. 2 gives the terrace measurements made at the different
points along the river, and it should be borne in mind that they do
not represent the highest portion of the upper terrace when more
than one is present, as, especially along the upper portion of the
river, the shore-line is quite a distance back.

Such, in brief, are the general relations of the deposits along the
Hudson River.

As far back as 1800 Dr. Samuel L. Mitchell mentioned the Hudson
River clays in the Mineralogical History of New York. In this he
says: "The flats between the basaltic rocks and Stony Point at
Haverstraw appear to be underlaid by argillaceous strata, which, as
their edges appear along the shore, are not yet hardened enough to
withstand the impression of the walker's foot."

In 182(5, according to Prof. W. W. Mather (Geol. First District of
New York, p. 130), Mr. John Finch described the quaternary de-
posits of the Hudson in a ereneral manner under the name of tertiary.

Prof. W. W. Mather (Geol. First District of New York, pp. 123-
150) in 1843 gives a general description of the quaternary deposits
of this region.

In a paper published in the Amer. Journ. Sci. for June, 1891, Dr.
F. J. H. Merrill expresses the following conclusions concerning the
estuary deposits of the Hudson Valley : —

That after the departure of the glacier from the Hudson Valley
the land was depre.ssed for a time, this depression amounting to at
least 80 feet at New York and 340 feet at Schenectady. That during
this depression a great depth of clay accumulated, and over this a
dei)osit of fine stratified sand. Dr. Merrill considers that the sand
may possibly have been deposited during the emergence of the land.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 37

and he furthGr considers that following the submergence there was
an elevation amounting to 180 feet at New York and at Albany to
an amount probably not less than 350 feet and perhaps even 400
feet, and that during this elevation the estuary deposits were exten-
sively eroded. There is then supposed to have been a second de-
pression, which at New York amounted to 100 feet.

As far as my personal observations go, they practically confirm
Dr. Merrill's conclusions. A few facts I may, however, add: —

Regarding the unstratified material overlying the clays at certain
points we note the following: —

1. The materials are coarse sand, pebbles, and cobble-stones, lying
mixed up together, the only locality where stratification was noticed
being at Dutchess Junction.

2. The materials are of the same kind as the rocks in that vicinity.

3. The stones are rounded and water-worn and show no signs of
glaciation. This material was possibly washed down into the Hud-
son Valley from the valleys of its tributaries by the floods which
took place in the late quaternary and during the emergence of the
land.

The ice-scratched boulders found in the clay were probably dropped
there by icebergs floating down the estuary to the sea.

While in the field I found no fossils, but a microscopic examination
of the clays has thus far resulted in the discovery of three objects : —

1. A diatom resembling a tertiar}'' species from Richmond, Ya.

2. A fragment which may possibly be a diatom or desmid.

3. Another fragment whose surface has a moniliform pattern.
This closely resembles the surface-marking of the shell of a Buc-
cinium described by Sir William Dawson from the Champlain de-
posits of Canada. (Canad. Nat., New Series, vol. vi.)

Concretions are very common in the clays and of varied outline.
One variety found at Coxsackie has formed around the roots which
penetrate the clay and resembles in form the rhizomorphs described
by Dr. Northrop (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. x. No. 1) from the
Bahamas. They may have originated in a similar manner.

In the sands overlying the clays at Croton Point concretions are
common, sometimes forming mas.ses four by six feet and several
inches thick.

38

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

[NOV. 30,

o

Character of underlying
material.

Sand and gravel. Kame

Drift?

Shale.

Sand and gravel. Kame

Shale.

U

Limestone and gravel.
Drift.

Hardpan cemented by
Rock. [clay
Ro(-k.

Hardpan and shale.

Hardpan.

Sand and gravel.
Shale and drift ?].
Shale and small bowlders

s
>

8

«.-

o
'o

JS

O

Loam.

Loam and sand.
Fine sand.
Earth and sand.
Loam.

Fine sand and gravel.
Sand and gravel.

Sand and gravel, 6 strat.
Delta material.
Fine gravel.

Sand and gravel.
Sand and cobbles.
Sand ; concretions.
Sand, loam, gravel.
Sand and gravel, [strat.
Sand and gravel, cross-
Coarse sand and stones.
Sand an<l cobliles.
Loam and brush.
Sand and gravel.

U (1

Loam.

11

Sand.

Sand and cobbles.

Loam.

14

Thickness

of
covering.

^ S^S^^ a ^

cC'^c^rrMOD-^c^C) t-<"»-i c-i o o o o o ^'^ co ro i-C o o o c^ o c^i :c cm cC' c^ Tf -?• r- iM o L':; c^

(^\ c^ -i T T T T ^ ^ CD ^ TT T T I V 1 1 1 1 1 1

Total
thick-
ness.

•s^

r*1 oQ

12 1 I 1 M l???iS |gg I 1| 1 12 !^ 1 1 IS 1 IS 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M

Height
above tide
of bottom

of clay.

I 1 1 1 1

Yellow.

O «5

Blue.

>

■^ 2
o S

%%

•3.2

Sutton and Suderly.
W. Hvdcr.
F. W." Noble.
Derbyshire Brick Co.
T. Brousseau.
Washburn Bros.
F. N. Van Dusen.
Streeter it llendrix.

C. H. Littlcfield.

A. Rose <V Co.

D. C. Overbaugh.
Brigham Bros.
C. A. Shultz.

.T. J. Jover.
Rose k ( 0.

C. A. & A. P. Hedges.
Excelsior Brick Co.
Donnelly & Son.
Lilburn's Land.
Felter <fe Mather.
W. A. F. Brick Co.
Anchor Brick t^o.
C. A. Hyatt.
J. Morton.

B. J. Maguire.
Cole A Bonner.
T. Ti money.
L. Van Buren.
Aldridge Bros, k Co.
Barnacue it Dow.
Harris A (Jinley.
Obrien, McConnell,

Vahey.
Brockway Brick Co.
Dinan it Butler.
J. V. Meade.

C. (i. (iriggs & Co.
Arkison Bros.
Walsh Bros.

E. Brousseau,

Locality.

Coeyman's Landing

Athens

Coxsackie ....
Catskill .....

Glasco

East Kingston . .

Roseton

New Windsor . .
Cornwall ....
Haversti-aw . . .

Thiells

Croton Landing .

Montrose ....

Verplank ....
Peekskill ....
Dutchess .lunction

Fi.shkill

Low Point ....

Hudson

Stockport ....
Stuyvesant . . .

bo

c

1891.]

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Table No. 2. — Terrace Measurements.
Measurements marked thus * are from Dr. Merrill.

89

West Shore.

North.

East Shore.

Coeymau's Landing.

140

1.30

60

Schodack.

Coxsackie.

135 .

150

Stockport.

Athens.

125
40

20?

100

Hudson.

Cat skill.

140

Maiden.

Sta.

84

Smith's Landing.

75

Glasco.

150

E. Kingston.

l(i0

Port Ewen.

207
40

Marlborough.

200
60

Roseton.

120

185

Low Point.

106

[Dinan & Butler.]

84

[Brockway Brk. Co.]

New burgh.

205

205

Fishkill.

New Windsor.

108

125

Dutchess .Junction.

120

[T. Timoney.]

Cornwall.

200

200

Storm King.

138

150

60

West Point.

185*

Jones's Point.

120*

120*
20?

Peekskill.

Stony Point.

100
60
20

90

Verplank.

Haverstraw.

100
60

100

Croton Landing.

Geological Laboratory, Columbia College.

Following the reading of this paper there was considerable dis-
cussion by Professors Britton, Kemp, Martin, and others.

Mr. Garrettson offered the following :

Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed by the chair
to draft resolutions relative to the decease of Dr. John C. Jay, of
Rye, N. Y., who, on November 8th, 1891, the date of his decease,
was the oldest surviving member of this Society, and to present
such resolutions before the Academy at its next meeting for action.

Carried.

The Chair appointed as such committee Messrs. Garrettson,
Britton, and Martin.

Meeting adjourned.

40 TRANSACTIONS OF TUE [dEC. 7,

December 7th, 1891.

Regular Business Meeting.

Yice-President Dr. Hubbard in the Chair. Twenty-five persons
present.

The minutes of the Business Meeting of November 2d were read
and approved.

Mr. Garretson, Chairman of the Jay Memorial Commitee, made
the following report, which was unanimously adopted : —

Resolved, That the New York Academy of Sciences receives with
deep regret the announcement of the death of Dr. John C. Jay,
which occurred at his country seat at Rye, N. Y., on November
8th of this current year. At the date of his decease. Dr. Jay was
the oldest surviving member of this Society, having joined the
Lyceum of Natural History fift^'-nine years ago.

Resolved, That the Records and Annals of this Society bear
abundant testimony to the efficient services of Dr. Jay in its behalf
in his performance for many years of the duties of Treasurer of the
Lyceum, and to his substantial aid and wise advice afforded it in
times of financial difficulty.

Resolved, That the Academy recognizes the eminent services ren-
dered by Dr. Jay to the cause of science in his specialty as a con-
chologist, through his labors in the collecting, classifying, and cata-
loguing of mollusca in the celebrated "Jay Collection" and the
gathering together of extensive and valuable literature connected
with the subject.

Resolved, That the Academy and the public have cause for con-
gratulation in the fact that the results of Dr. Jay's labors will live
as a monument to his name and usefulness by the deposit with
the American Museum of Natural History in this city of "the
Jay Collection of Shells" and the catalogues and literature con-
nected therewith — all of which were purchased from Dr. Jay by
the late Miss Catherine Wolfe, and by her generously presented to
that institution for the benefit of posterity.

Resolved, That these resolutions be recorded in the minutes of the
Academy, and a copy of the same be furnished by the Secretary to
his son. Dr. John C. Jay, Jr., of this city, to be received by him
in behalf of the family of our deceased member.

The following persons recommended by the Council were elected
Resident Members by ballot : —

Stephen P. Nash,
Dr. J. Adelphi Gottlieb,
Charles Riborg Mann,
Prof. Henry F. Osborn.

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 41

Mr. Frank M. Chapman was nominated as a Resident Member
by Professor J. A. Allen.

The Astronomical Section then organized, Professor J. K. Rees
in the chair. Mr. Jacoby, the Secretary, read the following papers
))y title :

I. Transit Factors for the Observatory of Columbia College.

BY J. T. MONELL AND C. R. MANN.

II. The Rutherfurd Photographic Measures of the Group of the

Pleiades.

BY' HAROLD JACOBY.

The following papers were then read, entitled:
Report upon the Meeting of the National Academy of Sciences.

BY HAROLD JACOBY.

(Abstract.)

At the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences held at
Columbia College, November 10th to 12th, the following papers of
a mathematical nature were read : Certain New Methods and Re-
sults in Optics, by Professor Charles S. Hastings; New Pendulum
Apparatus, by Professor T. C. Mendenhall ; Astronomical Methods
of Determining the Curvature of Space, by Professor C. S. Peirce ;
Variation of Latitude, by Professor S. C. Chandler ; Color System,
by Professor 0. N. Rood ; Reduction of Rutherfurd's Photographs,
by Professor J. K. Rees; Measurement of Jupiter's Satellites by
Interference, by Professor A. A. Michelson.

Professor Hastings's paper contained some new and very simple
demonstrations of optical formulae already known, as well as certain
important formulae altogether new, including a general expression
for magnifying power applicable to both telescopes and microscopes.
Professor Peirce presented astronomical evidence tendiug to show
that space posses.«es a negative curvature, and called attention to
various methods of conducting an investigation of this property of
space. Professor Chandler exhibited curves shoAving that the re-
cently discovered variation of latitude could be made to explain
certain hitherto unaccountable discordances in older observations.
His paper was followed by considerable discussion among the as-
tronomers present. Professors Young, E. C. Pickering, C. S. Peirce,
Abbe, and Dr. Gould taking part. The chief question debated was
whether the variation has a terrestrial or celestial origiu. The
investigations are being published in the Astronomical Journal.
Vol. XL— 4

42 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [dEC. 7,

Professor Michelson described his recent measurements of Jupiter's
satellites at the Lick Observatory, and thought that we may hope
to measure the angular diameters of some of the brighter stars, if
they be as great as the hundredth part of a second of arc. His
paper was perhaps the most important one of the session. In it
was presented a new method oi measuring the angular diameters
of luminous discs by means of the interference phenomena produced
by them. The experiments made at the Lick Observatory have
been described in the Publications of the Adronoviical Society of
the Pacific. The 12-inch telescope was used, but a telescope is by
no means indispensable for these observations, the chief requisite
being a very favorable condition of atmosphere. It is to be hoped
that these very promising researches will be continued.

III. Changes on the Lunar Surface.
BY J. K. reEs.

(Abstract.)

Professor Rees first presented briefly the various reported dis-
coveries of changes on the lunar surface, making especial mention
of the case of Linne. lie then stated the case of Hyginus N. " Let
us recapitulate the present state of this most important question.
In the central regions of the moon, where libration has no sensible
effect in altering the appearance of the lunar surface, thei'e is a com-
paratively open region which has been often studied. Schroter,
Lohrmann, Gruithuisen, Beer and Miidler, Schmidt, Klein, Neison,
have all made this region the object of special stud}', so that it has
been repeatedly examined with most powerful instruments. A
great number of very small crater-hills and ridges have been seen,
and all drawn and mapped. A smaller number of larger craters
and hills have also been seen, and every one which existed has been
mapped. So often has this reg-ion been studied, that several years
ago it was pointed out as being one of the very few regions in which
if a change occurred it would be possible to prove it.

" 'V^hat do the present observations show ? This, that in the very
midst of this region there now exists a big black, rounded spot, per-
haps a crater, perhaps merely a depression, possibly only a surface
marking, but in any case so large and conspicuous as to be almost
the most distinct object in the entire region. We know that the
minuter features shown on the maps and drawings made anterior
to 1816 could only have been seen and drawn within forty-eight
hours of sunrise and sunset. We know, moreover, that most of
these drawings were made shortly after sunrise Yet the present
observations would indicate that now, whenever these smaller de-
tails are visible, there, in their very midst, stands this great black
object. For more than thirty-six hours after sunrise this black,
crater-like object appears to be now always visible. Before 187('

1891. J NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 43

it was never to be seen; since IStl it is never to be overlooked.
Wherefore ?"

This was the statement of the case in the Selenographical Journal
for June 19th, 1879. Thereafter the Journal published numerous
drawing's showing Hyginus N. In various astronomical papers and
journals is to be found frequent mention of this interesting- ques-
tion.

At the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society of London,
in April, 1882, Mr. Nelson gave a succinct account of the observa-
tions made by himself and others on this portion of the moon. He
believes the marking new, and says: "What its real nature is —
whether it is a volcanic elevation, whether it is a break down,
whether it is a black surface, or what it is — I do not know ; but it
is a certain black object which was not there when I observed it
before 1877, when Prof. Schmidt and Dr. Klein observed it, who
could not have overlooked it if it had been anything as distinct as
it is now. Although there are very many drawings of that part of
the moon, there is not a single one that shows it.'"

Although the evidence brought forward is considered very strong
and appears almost like proof of a change in lunar marking, yet
astronomers have not regarded the evidence as sufficient; the pith
of their oljjection being that " when your attention is directed to a
thinii:, the thing is easilv seen."*

I was encouraged to take up this question by the Director of the
Lick Observatory, Prof. E. S. Holden,

Knowing that the Columbia College Observatory had received
from Mr. Rutherfurd all his lunar photographs, most of them taken
before 1876, Prof. Holden suggested that we were the only persons
in the world who possessed the requisite material for settling the
question.

Our first examination was as to whether the photographs taken
during the past few years show the marking Hyginus N.

This was answered in the affirmative. The photograph taken
August 15th, 1888, by Prof. Holden, and the photograph by W.
H. Pickering in 1889, showing Hipparchus and the surrounding
region, seem to me to show plainly the marking. Being satisfied
that the marking can be photographed, I ne.xt examined a number
of positives made by Rutherfurd; these were sealed and could not
be examined as closely as desired. On the positive taken Septem-
ber lC)th, 1870, there appears to be a dark marking in the place
where Hyginus N. show^s itself in the later photographs. The
phase is not the best suited for such examination. This marking
was also seen by Mr. H. Jacoby. I find, too, in " Poetry of As-
tronomy," by Ru A. Proctor, on page 240. that he examined sev-
eral photographs of the moon by Rutherfurd. and thought he saw
on the positive of September 16, 1870, Hyginus N.

1 The Observatory, No. (30, 1882, p. 102'.

" Remark by Prest. Stone, R. A. S. Observatory, No. 60, p. 105,

I

44 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [DEC. 21,

This exaniinatioD seems to show it Avill be desirable to make posi-
tives from all of Rutherfurd's negatives of the moon when her age
was less than thirty-six hours greater than the first quarter.

Such an examination will be begun very shortly.

Meeting adjourned.

December 14th, 1891.
Stated Meeting.

Yice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair. About fifteen persons
present.

The minutes of November 30th were read and approved.

The following paper was read, entitled : —

The Railway Problem in China.

BY JOHN A. CHURCH.

(No abstract.)

At the close of this paper, the Academy adjourned to the Chemical *
Lecture-Room, where the following papers were read, entitled : —

A new form of Vacuum Tube, and A new Electrodynamic Cur-
rent Interrupter, both by Dr. M. I. Pupin.

No Abstract.

December 21st, 1891.

Stated Meeting.

Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair. One hundred and
fifty persons present.

The minutes of December 14th were read and approved.

Prof. D. S. Martin announced that during the coming week an
exhibition of geographical apparatus, maps, charts, globes, etc.,
would be opened at the Arsenal Building in Central Park. The
exhibition would remain open for two weeks, and members of the
Academv were invited to attend.

9

1891.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 45

Dr. Hubbard exhibited the following early and interesting works
on North American Geology : —

Wm. Maclure's Geology, with a section map from St. Louis to
the Atlantic Ocean, through Philadelphia, published in 181*1.

The Van Rensselaer Canal Survey, by Prof. Eaton, of Troy,
with a section from Boston to Niagara, published in 1825.

Prof. Mitchell's Geology of North Carolina, 1842.

Meeting of Geologists in Philadelphia in 1840. Dr. Hubbard
stated that he had been present at that meeting.

The third lecture of the Popular Course was then delivered by
Prof. H. L. Fatrchild, of Rochester University, entitled : —

Mountains, their Origin and History,

illustrated by lantern views.

At the close of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to the
lecturer, and the Academy adjourned until January 4th, 1892.

January 4th, 1892.

Regular Business Meeting.

Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair. Ten persons present.

The minutes of the previous Business Meeting (December tth,
1891) were read and approved.

Mr. Frank M. Chapman, having been recommended for election
as a Roeident Member by the Council, was duly elected by ballot.

The following persons were proposed as Resident Members, viz :

J. Woodbridge Davis, Ph.D., by H. Jacoby, Israel C. Pierson,
Ph.D., by J. J. Stevenson, and referred to the Council.

The Astronomical Section then organized, Prof. J. K. Reks in
the chair. The Secretary of the Section read a communication
from Count E. v. Hesse- Wartegg, who was expected to lecture
upon "The Progress of Standard Time in Europe." The Count
was unable to be present, as he had been summoned to Spain by
cable on important business of his government.

Remarks were made by Prof. Rees up »n Standard Time, and

46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jAN. 4,

letters were read upon the same topic from Count Hesse-Wartegg,
Dr. Robert Schramm, of Vienna, and Mr. Allen.

From the latter the following communication was obtained: —

We are informed by Prof. Pasquier, of the Univ'ersity of Louvain,
that M. Vandenpeereboom, Minister of the De]iartment of Railway,
Postal and Telegraph Lines of Belgium, has decided to introduce
the use of the Standard Time of the Greenwich Meridian on May
1, 1892, in all services in his department. He also recommends its
adoption by the other departments in their relations to the public.
This is a great step in advance toward the unification of time
throughout all the world.

The situation in other countries, as briefl}' set forth by Prof.
Pasquier, has been published in the " Anuales de la Soci^ie Scien-
tifique," of Brussels, from which we extract the following: —

In Holland the government has authorized the use of Standard
Time of the Green wich Meridian for the operation of railways
from May 1, 1892, the same date as for Belgium. On the time
tables for the use of the public, for the present, local time will be
used.

In Prussia "Middle European Time," one hour faster than
Greenwich time, was adopted on June 1, 1891, for employes' time-
tables. At the meeting of the German Railway Union, held last
year, the Prussian delegates opposed the adoption of this standard
for public time-tables, but they have now themselves proposed its
adoption for the use of the public also. A speech made by Field-
Marshal Von Moltke in the Reichstag shortly before his death
appears to have been a moving cause of this change of opinion.
At the meeting of the "Union" in July, 1892, the general adoption
of Standard Time for all railway tim-etal)les in Germany is likely
to be accomplished, and its use in civil life will proba1)ly follow.

The governments of the South German States (Bavaria, Wur-
temberg, and Baden) have decided to adopt the " Middle European
Time" for all railway time-tables on April 1, 1892. Its introduc-
tion in Alsace-Lorraine will be effected on the same date. '

Since October 1, 1891, the same standard time has been in use in
all railway, postal, and telegraph service in Austria-Hungary, and
many Austrian cities have also adopted it. Dr. Peez, a member of
the Chamber, presented, at the meeting of May 11, 1891, in the
name of twenty-nine of his colleagues, a petition asking legislation
authorizing the extension of the use of the new time for civil life
throughout the entire empire.

It appears quite probable that by the winter of 1892, or not later
than the summer of 1893, the unification of time in all the countries
mentioned, on the same principle of standard time now in use in
this country, will have been completed.

1802.] NEAV YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 47

The following letter was read by Mr. Jacoby : —

T)r. B. A. Gould, president of the American Metrological Society,
writes from Germany that at the quinquennial session of the
Geographical International Congress held in Berne, August 10 to
17, there were aliout two hundred and eighty delegates and repre-
sentatives from all countries. At this Congress was passed the
following resolution on August 14th : —

" The Geographical Congress entreats Englishmen of science to
desist in future from the use of their ancient units of weights and
measures in scientific and technical publications, and to employ
those of the metric system only."

This resolution was passed with immense enthusiasm ; the ap-
plause and cheering lasted for nearly five minutes, and the vote was
unanimous.

In connection with this, allow me to state that the American
Metrological Society has prepared a petition asking Congress to
pass the following act : —

" That on and after July 1st, 1893, the metric system of weights
and measures authorized by the act of Congress approved July
28th, ISOr., shall be used exclusively in the customs service in the
United States."

Such petition we desire to circulate widely amongst those desir-
ing to sign it, and we ask each signer to mail it to his Representative
in Congress.

The American Metrological Society has prepared a simple and
excellent chart of the metric system, which, for educational pur-
poses, it will mail to any one asking for it for the cost price, 10
cents in stamps. Address Secretary of American Metrological
Society, No. 41 East 49th Street, New York City. Copies of the
petition can be had at the same address.

JOHN K. REES, Secretary Am. Met. Society.

New York, Sep. 24, 1891.

The Secretary of the Section announced the discovery at Heidel-
berg of two minor planets by photography. He also, upon the
request of Prof. Martin, made some remarks upon the Secular
Variation of Latitude.

Meeting adjourned.

48 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jAN. 18,

January 11th, 1892.

Stated Meeting.

Yice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair. Twenty-five persons
present.

The minutes of December 21st, 1891, were read and approved.

The following' paper was read, entitled : —

The Natural Dyes as Applied to Wool.

BY H. T. VULTE and D. W. WARD.

This paper will appear in the May number.

At the close of the paper the meeting adjourned.

January 18th, 1892.

Stated Meeting.

Mr. r. W. Garrettson in the chair. One hundred persons
present.

The minutes of January 11th were read and appi-oved.

The fourth lecture of the Popular Course was then delivered by
Prof. Franklin W. Hooper, of the Brooklyn Institute, on

The Lochs and Crannogs of Scotland,

illustrated by lantern views.

From the deductions of Prof. Hooper, the ancient Scottish Race,
the Picts, resisted successfully the invasion of Roman, Northman,
Dane, and Saxon arms ; their peculiar manner of building these lake
homes, and the engineering skill displayed in the construction of
the Crannogs, together with the implements found in their ruins,
mark them as a people of no small degree of civilization. These
lake dwellings have been found in almost every quarter of Scotland,
and when fully investigated will probably throw much light on this
unconquerable race.

Meeting adjourned.

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 49

January 25th, 1892.

Stated Meeting.

Tice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair. Eighteen persons
present.

The minutes of January 18th were read and approved.

A letter was read from Dr. John C. Jay, Jr., thanking the
Academy for the Resolutions adopted in memory of his father, the
late Dr. John C. Jay.

Dr. Bolton announced that an illustrated lecture would be de-
livered l)efore the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences by
Prof. Charles V. Riley, Chief of the Division of Entomology,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, on Tuesday, March 2d, 1892.

Insects and flowers ; or, the Interrelations of Insects and Plants.

Members of the Academy were invited to attend.

The following paper was then read, entitled

The Origin and History of Mineralogical Names,

BY albert H. CHESTER,

with an exhibition of classical works on Mineralogy.

The study of mineral names is an interesting one, not only from
the mineralogist's point of view, as aifording an insight into the
growth and development of this branch of science, but also to the
student of human nature, for many ti-aits of character are shown in
the various considerations which have determined the particular
name to be adopted.

We sometimes find as a reason for a name the simple idea of dis-
tiuffuishina: the thing itself: but this is not the most common reason.
To do honor to some person who may perhaps be pleased or flat-
tered by the attention, or to immortalize some place, often otherwise
obscure or unknown, is a much more common reason. Names have
been given to commemorate battle-fields, to sneer at the work of
earlier investigators, and as a tribute to feminine loveliness. In
short the whole round of human passions has been gone over in the
manufacture of these words, which are purely scientific in their
uses, and for the making of which scientific methods might well
have been employed. The subject has also no little interest from
the philological side, and these names deserve study if only as part

50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jAN. 25,

of lan^uag-e. I need make no excuse for occupying- your thoughts
for a short time in tlie consideration of this general subject.

One of the most noticeable thing's about mineral names is the
lack of uniformity in their terminations. While the large majority
of them end in -ite, there are many in -ine, while -ane, -ase, -ose, and
several others have been often used. It is to be regretted that the
termination -ite has not been universally adopted, for it has been so
far adopted as to be the generally accepted one for such names. It
has the sanction of antiquity, for it was used by the old Greek
writers in the forms -ites, or -itis, as in di^uatiV*??, 'hematite,' and
a'kalSdatctia, 'alabaster.' Such forms were also used by the Romans,
and we have in Fliny siderites, ' lodestone,' steatitis, 'soapstone,'
molochites, 'malachite,' and many others. These forms are un-
doubtedly the source of the termination -ite now in use, as they "are
the earliest known terminations. Such names were given by the
ancients as noting some property or use of the mineral, or some-
times designating its soui'ce, or the locality from which it was
derived; as fiayv^tii, a mineral from Magnesia. Or, to speak of
those already mentioned, aifxatitrii is a mineral resembling blood,
from the color of its powder; a?.ai3a(jririj, a mineral from which a
vessel called an alabastron was cut, siderites, from oi6»7po5, 'iron,'
because it contains it, steatitis, from driaros, ' of fat,' because it feels
greasy, and molochites, from ^axdzri, 'mallows,' alluding to its green
color.

All scientific works were written in Latin up to a very recent
date, and as there w^as no chemistry to show dif!erences in composi-
tion, there was no real progress in mineralogy. External characters
alone were used as means of distinguishing minerals from each
other, and those that looked alike must necessarilv be classed
together. Plinv's names were sufficient for all the uses of science
down to the 16th century. There had hardly been a name added,
even by Agricola, whose large works were published 1529 to 1546.
The name fluor is perhaps his only new^ one, and that he probably
did not originate, but took from the vocabulary of the furnace-men,
who used it in smelting their ores. Certain minerals in general use
had their common names in various languages, but there were few
of these.

The use of the termination -lite, in German -lith, from the Greek
^lOoc, 'a stone,' ought here to be mentioned, as it was a genuine
attempt to introduce a distinguishing mark for mineral names,
which, if successful, Avould have been of great benefit to mineral
nomenclature, as bringing in the desirable element of uniformity.
This also comes from antiquity, being found in the Greek. But
it never came into general use, and in later years is hardly used
except for euphony. There is an erroneous impression that the ter-
mination -ite is derived from this, which, as we have seen, is not the
case, being a much older form.

Several attempts have been made to give systematic names to
minerals on some such principle as is used in other branches of

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 51

natural science, but none of them have been generally adopted, and
all have by degrees been dropped. One of the earliest of these was
by Sir John Hill, in his History of Fossils, 1748. He divides min-
erals into nQmbered series, classes, and orders, and under these into
named genera and species. His genus names are many of them
new, but are sometimes older names modified to suit his system.
For instance, Marmora, for the marbles. A good example of his
new names, and also of the way in which species were multiplied,
when only external characteristics were considered, is in the order
of inflammables. The 3d class is called Phlogonite, and under this
we have as the 1st Genus, Pyricubia, and under this two species —

1st. Pyricubium maximum foliaceum, and

2d. Pyricubium solidum minus.

The first of these species is simply cubical crystals of iron pyrites,
striated by oscillation toward a heml-tetrahexahedron, and the
second is the unstriated crystals of the same. Octahedral pyrite is
made another genus, and dodecahedral is still another. Several
more genera are made from what is now the one species. This
system never came into general use, and Hill himself gives it up
and adopts one much more simple in his later work, 1771.

In 1820 Prof. Mohs brought out a small book entitled " The
Characters of the Classes, Orders, Genera, and Species; or the
Characteristic of the Natural History System of Mineralogy.
Intended to enable students to discriminate minerals on principles
similar to those of Botany and Geology." This system is more
fully presented in his larger work of 1822-24, translated by Hai-
dinger in 1825. He uses genus and species names for each
mineral, and sometimes adds a third for more careful distinction.
Under the genus garnet he gives Pyramidal Garnet, or idocrase ;
Dodecahedral Garnet, or true garnet, and Prismatoidal Garnet, or
staurolite. Dioptase becomes Rhombohedral Emerald-Malachite,
This system was quite popular for a time, and had several imita-
tors. Prof. C. U. Shepard adopts Mohs's system, and in the first
edition of his mineralogy, 1832-5, he not only uses his names, but
extends the system still further. He, however, gives the common,
or trivial name as it is called first, and always uses them in speaking
of the species. Microlite is the one new species of his own noted in
this book, which under the system he calls Octahedral Tungstic-
Baryte, and similar names are carried all the way through. None
of these names are mentioned in his third edition, 1852-7.

In 1836, Prof. J. D. Dana read a paper before the New York
Lyceum of Natural History, entitled "A New Mineral Nomencla-
ture," in which he presents a complete arrangement according to
the Natural History method, and gives some very good reasons for
its adoption. This system is carried out in full in the first edition,
1837, of his great work on Mineralogy. He uses in general two
names for each mineral, as Andalusius prismaticus for andalusite,
but he gives the common name first in all ca.ses. In his second

52 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jAN. 25,

edition, 1844, he retains these Latin names as the scientific ones,
as necessary to "a systematic idea of the science," but adds, "the
shorter trivial names should, however, be retained, as more con-
venient for common use." In the third edition, 1850, however,
Prof. Dana discards the whole system, not even retaining the names
as synonyms. A system of arrangement was adopted that was
understood to be temporary, while at the end of the work a chemi-
cal classification was suggested. In the later editions, this last has
been perfected, and we now have an arrangement easy of reference
and answering all purposes of classification, but from which all
traces of the double Latinized forms of the Natural History methods
have disappeared. This or some similar system is now generally
followed by wn-iters on mineralogy, much to the satisfaction of
those who use their works. In 1847, Glocker published his work
entitled " Generum et Specierum Mineralium Synopsis." This is
perhaps the most successful attempt at a systematic nomenclature
that has been made. He uses in general a Latinized form of the
common name for the name of each species, with some descriptive
word added. For varieties, he adds a third word, as is common in
other branches of natural history. For instance, under Granatus,
garnet, he gives three- species : 1st. Granatus nobilis, precious gar-
net ; 2d. Granatus hyacinthinus, cinnamon garnet ; and 3d. Granatus
vulgaris, common garnet, and under the latter, the varieties Granatus
vulgaris fuscus, nige?-, vii'idis, Jlavus, and albidus. The work is
in Latin, thus going back to the style of the scientific books of the
last centur}'. Recently, Prof. T. Sterry Hunt has devised a new
Natural System, suggested indeed as early as 1853, but as he does
not give us new names for the species, a discussion of it would be
out of place here. His work is, however, exceedingly interesting,
and will well repay examination by those who care to go further
into that side of the general subject.

In 1128 Dr. John Woodward published a work entitled " Fossils
of all Kinds Digested into a Method, Suitable to their Mutual Re-
lations and Affinity," but it is a description from external characters
only, and can hardly be called a scientific treatise. The first one
that really deserves such a name is by the Swedish mineralogist,
Wallerius, in 1747, which is arranged on a scientific plan, and gives
us the earliest systematic description of minerals. Cronstedt,
another Swedish chemist, ten years later gave us a work of much
greater value, as he brought in chemical relations, as far as was
possible in the crude state of that science. But few new names
were added, for the study was still largely from the external side,
and new species could not be recognized. With the discovery of
oxygen in 1770, and the real beginning of the science of chemistry,
a more correct basis for the differentiation of mineral species was
found. This was aided by the application of scientific crystallo-
graphy, the first edition of Delisle's work appearing in 1772, and
the second, in four volumes, in 1783. From this date new names

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 53

were g-iven to minerals as the result of more extended research in
this branch of study, and one of the first of these was prehnite,
given by Werner to a mineral brought from the Cape of Good Hope
bv Colonel Prehn, and hence named after him. Werner first an-
nounced the name in his lectures in 1783, as he himself states later,
but it was not published for several years. In 1789 there is an
article in the Journal de Physique, by Sage, objecting to the use of
names of persons for minerals, the text for which is this name of
Werner's. But the name has kept its place, and is now the accepted
one for the species. Other names, given about the same time after
persons, are Witherite, after Dr. Withering, who first described it,
and torl)erite, later changed to torbernite, after Torbern Bergmann,
its first analyst. I'his latter mineral has gone through various vicis-
situdes as to its name, and a list of them, as an illustration, may not
be out of place here. I take them from the 5th edition of Dana's Min-
eralogy, p. 585; Mica viridis, 1772; Chalkolith, 1788; Torberite,
1793; Uranglimmer, 1800; Torbernit, 1803; Uranite, 1814; Uran-
phyllit, 1820; Copper Uranite (no date) ; Cuprouranit, 1865.

My study of the history of mineral names was begun in the in-
terest of Murray's English Dictionary, where these names are con-
sidered as words simply, and part of the language, as found in
books. The information sought with reference to each is 1st, the
author of the name ; 2d, date of first publication ; 3d, reference to
original ])ublication ; 4th, first form, if different from the form now
used by English writers ; 5th, derivation ; 6th, reason for the name;
7th, a short description, sutficient to identify it, particularly if the
name has been used for more than one species or variety.

A good example is Erinite, a name given by Haidinger, 1828,
Annafs of Philosophy, 2d series, vol. iv, p. 154, from Erin, because
it was supposed to have been found in Ireland. It is a green,
fibrous, arseniate of copper. This description is necessary, and suffi-
cient to distinguish it from Erinite of Thompson, 1836, Thompson's
Mineralogy, vol. i, p. 342, derived also from Erin, for the same
reason, and properly so, for it came from Ireland. But this is a
reddish, clay-like mineral from the Giant's Causeway, and probably
does not merit a name at all. Full information about the majority
of the names is easily obtained, and is usually to be found in the
last edition of Dana's Mineralogy, up to 1892. In his 5th edition
Prof. Dana makes an attempt at uniformity of nomenclature by
changing the terminations of many of them into -ite, particularly
those ending in -ine, only leaving those unchanged which had come
into too general use in the language to be so treated. So we have
galenite, alabandite, pyrrhotite, and periclasite, instead of galena,
alabandine, pyrrhotine, and periclase. These changes have been
generally adopted, and are all in the right direction.

In 1876 Prof. Shepard published a " Catalogue of Minerals found
within about 75 miles of Amherst College, Mass.," in which he pro-
posed that the names of all acknowledged mineral species, except

54 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jAN. 25,

those of the elements and a very few more, shall uniformly end in
-ite, and that the termination -ine shall as uniformly be used for all
variety names, and those whose specific character is not fully settled.
Accordingly, he gives us gypsite, serpentite, wadite, orthoclasite,
spodumenite, epidotite and many similar changes, while marmolite,
picrolite, nacrite, and others are made to end in -ine, marmoline,
picroline, nacrine. It is hardlv necessarv to sav that these suo-"'es-
tions have not been generally or fully accepted.

With reference to a considerable number of names the full infor-
mation wanted is not easy to obtain, and in some cases perhaps it
cannot be found at all. When it is not given in Dana's Mineralogy
the student may be sure that he will have to hunt to find it. This
is particularly true of obsolete names, information about which must
be sought in the earlier volumes of scientific journals.

The first publication of Taylor's came killinite is in 1818, in vol.
xiii, p. 4, of the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, a fact
not stated in any work on mineralogy, as far as I have examined
them. There are some names also about which very erroneous
ideas as to derivation prevail, and which need correction. The name
chabazite was given in the form chabasie, by Bosc d'Antic, in IT 80,
Journal d'Histoire Naturelle, vol. ii, p. 181, and is derived from
xajSd^LOi, the name given to one of the stones mentioned in the
Orphic poem iifpt.' ■kiOov. The name as we now have it in the poem
is x^-T^a^'-oi, and the mineral should therefore have been called chala-
zite. Kidd called attention to the blunder in 1809, Kidd's Min-
eralogy, vol. i, p. 249; but the original name has held its place.
It is but fair to say that the form ;^a,3a'?to5 was used in the current
editions of the poem cit the time the name was applied. The deriva-
tion of the word datholite has often been incorrectly given. It is
really a corruption of the original name datolith, given by Esmark
in 1800, from Sdtiofiai, to divide, and ^iOo^, alluding to the granular
structure of one of its varieties. Werner added the h for no appa-
rent reason, and the changed form was adopted by most authors
until Prof. Dana unriddled the matter and gave it its correct form
again. But wise writers have tried to find another derivation for
it, and one author of note says it is from bdOoi, which he says means
turbid, because the mineral is not clear and transparent. Another
wi.ser one says there is no such Greek word as 6a9oj, which is true,
and that it is from the compound word 8a-9oxxoj, meaning very tur-
bid, which is no more a proper derivation than the other. The
word feldspar has been changed into felspar for no better reason
than that the latter form was thought the right one. It was used
by Wallerius in his Mineralogy of 1747, p. 65, in the Swedish form
felt-spat, meaning field-spar. It did not originate with him probably,
but may have been a po])ular name in his time. Da Costa used
it in 1757, in the German form fcld-spath, and this form was cur-
rent until 1794, when we find, in Kirwan's Mineralogy, vol. i,
p. 817, the following note: "This name seems to be derived from

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 55

fels, a rock, it being commonly found in granites, and not from feld,
a field; and hence I write it thus, felspar." This assumption of
Kirwan has been taken for fact by all English writers, and the cor-
rupt form is in very general use.

The point most commonly lacking is the reason for adopting the
name. Where it is fur some characteristic of the mineral the author
often takes it for granted that it is as evident to others as to him-
self. The name coracite, Le Conte, Amer. Jour, of Science, ■2d
Series, vol. iii, p. 117, is a case in point. Le Conte does not
give any derivation, but it is the name of a pitch-black variety of
uraninite, and is probably derived from x6pa|, a raven. A similar
case is that of adinole ; Beudar.t's Mineralogy, 1832, vol. ii,
p. 126. No derivation is given, but it may easily be conjectured
from the description that it is from dStj/oj, compact. But there are
other cases Avhere there is nothing suggestive in the description, and
even conjecture is at fault. Such conjectures if stated as such are
of value, but to give them as facts, as has often been done, is cer-
tainly a serious blunder, if not something worse. Yet this has
often been done. In one of the large dictionaries we find the name
acanticone derived as follows: From " Greek dxv;, point, avri, against,
and xwvoi, cone." This is a mere guess. The name was given by
d'Andra(hi, 1800, Journal de Physique, vol. ii, p. 240, in the form
akanthicone, and is derived from dxavdii, a gold-finch, and xona,
powder, because the color of the powdered mineral is yellow. A
similar blunder is made with the name alvite, so called after one of
its localities, Alve, Norway. In the dictionary it is derived from
alvus, the belly. Another instance of a mistaken popular deriva-
tion is that of coreite, an obsolete synonym of agalmatolite, from
the name of the country Corea, probably because agalmatolite is
from China, and Corea is close by. The name was given by Dela-
metherie in 1795, and he derives it from xoipstoi, of a swine, because
of its greasy appearance. He at first calls it koireiite, but changed
it to koreiite, and then to koreite, with a k, which has since been
changed to c, yivin": the form resembling one derived from the name
Corea. But the name ought to be choireiite, commencing with ch.

Sometimes errors of the compositor have failed of correction, and
the changed names have found their way into later books as real
ones. One of these is glorikite ; Dufrenoy's Mineralogy, 1859, vol.
iii, p. 326, which is an error for glinkite. Gibsonite, in the 1847
edition of the same work, vol. iii, p. 761, is probably an error for
gibbsite, but this is hot so clear. Galadsite, galadstite, and galad-
tite are all printer's errors for galaktite.

A curious case of this sort is seen in the various forms of the word
didymite. It was announced by Schaufhautl in 1843 from 5(,'6v;uo5, a
twin, because it was thought to be a second silicate containing cal-
cium carbonate as part of its composition. The form was l)y some
blunder given as didrimite, but this was soon changed by the author
himself to the correctly derived form, didymite, the original i being

56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [jAN. 25,

properly chang^ed to y. Of this word you will find in the books
four different forms, only one of which deserves any place in
mineralog-y.

Breithaupt gave the name kupholit, from xov'poi, light, and xJeoj,
to a very light variety of serpentine. He leaves out the o of the
original word, probably because the w^ord with the o had been used
before, being an obsolete synonym of prehnite. This was first
changed to kuphoite and then to cyphoite, which gives little idea of
its original derivation and meaning.

Many more instances might be cited, but enough has been said to
show how much confusion has arisen through carelessness or un-
warrantable assumption, and how desirable it is that it should be
disentangled as far as possible.

The first requisite for this work was to get as complete a list as
possible of the names. This was compiled from many sources, as
no published list containing all the names was to be found in
the books. This list was then written in alphabetical order in a
))Ook with space between the names for the facts to be noted, and
plenty of space in which to insert omitted names. All the books at
command were then looked through in chronological order, and
facts inserted in their proper places as fast as found. In this way
all desired information was obtained and collated about the great
majority of the names, but a number were left either entirely blank
or with space only partially filled. Then the words .were taken
one by one, in order as written down, and the lacking matter filled
out as far as possible. In this way the work has progressed through
the letter G, which accounts for the fact that most of the names
cited come in the earlier part of the alphabet. But there are a num-
ber still incomplete, and it is partly in the hope of obtaining infor-
mation about some of these that this preliminary paper has been
prepared.

Of Ainalite and several other words I have not found the deriva-
tion. They are given by Nordenskiold, and probably the informa-
tion is to be found in his Mineralogy of Finland, but I have not
been able to see a copy of it. Albertite is a name that needs a
father and a first reference. Anagenite as a name for chrome ochre
seems to have no authoritative beginning. Aricite, a synonym of
gismondite, is in the same position. Aspidelite of Weibye has only
the author's name after it. Barettite, Beffonite, Beudantite as a
synonym of elaeolite, Bieirosite, Bischofite as a synonym of plum-
bogummite, Braardite and Bromlite are also more or less lacking.
Bromlite and some others can be cleared up by consulting the
Records of General Science, a journal published by Thompson in
1835 to 1836, but I have not yet found a copy of it. These twelve
names in A and B are all that are wanting to complete the infor-
mation about the six hundred names catalogued under tho.se letters;
and the other letters have about the same proportion. Any infor-

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 57

mation about these names or the books mentioned will be gladly
welcomed.

One other word I wish to speak of, and that is dragonite, an
early synonym for rock crystal. No suggestion is to be found
as to its author or derivation, and yet it is mentioned in many
books. The earliest mention I have found of it is in Zappe's Min-
eralogisches Hand-Lexicon published in 1817, where it has the form
dragomit, probably a typographical error, as everywhere else it is
spelled with an ??. Zappe says the name refers to rounded or rolled
quartz crystals, where only traces of the columnar form can be de-
tected. It is easy to conjecture that this word is from draconis, of
a dragon, and that such specimens were thought to have some rela-
tion to the fabulous monster, but without more light on the subject
nothing positive can be affirmed. But having carried 3'ou back to
the age of fables, I had better close, lest you think me wandering
from my subject.

Note. — Siuce the above paper was presented, the name dragonite has been
completely traced back to Pliny's Draconites, the so-called stone of the Flying
Dragon.

The paper being concluded. Dr. Bolton stated that the Library
Check-list in Bolton's Catalogue, to which the speaker had referred,
was compiled by a clerk in the Smithsonian Institution, and his work
was unfortunately rather carelessly done. He, Dr. Bolton, would
not like to be held responsible for it. Dr. Bolton said he had read
in Alchemy for Murray's Dictionary and contributed about four
hundred words. Murray's monumental work is not free from
errors in chemistry, benzine and benzene being confounded, for
example.

Dr. Bolton directed the attention of Prof. Chester to several
early dictionaries of chemistry that might be useful to him in his
research, viz. : William Johnson's London, 1652 ; Martin Ruland,
Frankfurt, 1612; and Sommerhofif's Lexicon, Nuremberg, 1701.

He also exhibited a copy of Bruce's American Mineralogical
Journal, New York, 1814, a work of great rarity. Prof. G.
Brown Goode had stated in print that only two copies of this
journal are known to exist, one in N. Y. State Librar}^, and one in
Harvard Library (Proceedings, Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. iv,

1886-88).

Dr. Bolton also exhibited a copy of the Memoirs of the Columbian
Chemical Society, Philadelphia, 1813, a book of peculiar interest
and but little known.

In reply Prof. Chester said the Library of Hamilton College
Vol. XL— 5

58 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 1,

also possessed a copy of Bruce's Journal, and Mr. Kunz stated he
too owned a copy.

Mr. Kunz spoke of his connection with the Century Dictionary,
and of a controversy on paper he had concerning the true nature
of "Rhinestone," a lexicographer of eminence claiming it to be
quartz, whereas it is koown to be paste.

Dr. Britton asked Prof. Chester whether any definite date
could be assigned to the beginnings of mineralogical nomenclature ;
botanical terminology dates chiefly from Linnaeus. Prof. Chester
replied that, after Pliny, perhaps Agricola was the first authority^
and that in Agricola's work he had found only one new name, jiuor.
Minerals began to be scientificalh^ differentiated about 1780-1T90,
and systematic nomenclature of minerals probably dated back to
this epoch.

After some remarks by Dr. Hubbard the meeting adjourned.

February 1st, 1892.

Regular Business Meeting.

"Vice-President Dr. Hubbard in the chair. Eighteen persons
present.

The minutes of January 4th were read and approved.

Prof. Thomas Egleston reported, on behalf of the Audubon
Monument Committee, that S9004 had been subscribed, of which
about $250 would probably never be paid. He then introduced the
following resolutions, which were adopted: —

Besolved, That the Audubon Monument Committee have power
to erect the monument to Audubon, and to make the proper arrange-
ments for the ceremonies of the unveiling, provided the work is all
done without expense to the Academy.

Besolved, That Prof. J. A. Allen be added to the Audubon
Monument Committee.

Prof. Egelston further explained the work of the committee,
and the co-operation of Trinity Church Corporation in providing a
new plot and vault for the remains.

Prof. Egleston exhibited a yellow sapphire (oriental topaz) of
unusual beauty.

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 59

The Secretary presented the report of the Council, recommending
candidates for election, viz : —

Dr. Israel C. Pierson.
Dr. J. WooDBRiDGE Davis.

These gentlemen were then elected by ballot.
The Secretary then read the list of officers for 1892-93, nominated
by the Council, as follows : —

For Honorary President — John S. Newberry.

For Fresidenf — Oliver P. Hubbard,

For 1st Vice-President — J. A. Allen.

For 2d Vice-President — H. Cabrington Bolton.

For Corresponding Secretary — Thomas L. Casey.

For Recording Secretary — H. T. Vulte.

For Treasurer — Henry Dudley.

For Librarian — James F. Kemp.

For Councillors — N. L. Britton, Charles F. Cox, D. S. Mar-
tin, H. F. OsBORN, J. K. Rees, W. P. Trowbridge.

For Curators — Geo. F. Kunz, Harold Jacoby, Arthur Hol-
lick, H. H. Rusby, F. G. Wiechmann.

For Finance Committee — John H. Hinton, H. G. Marquand,
0. B. Potter.

On motion of Dr. Bolton the Committee appointed June 1st,
1891, to draw up resolutions in memory of Prof. C. A. Joy, a
former President of the Academy, was enlarged by the appointment
of Mr. Henry Dudley and Dr. Alexis A. Julien. The Committee
now consists of Prof. D. S. Martin, Mr. Dudley, and Dr. Julien.

The Secretary announced a donation from Captain Thomas L.
Casey of $232, he having paid bills for publishing certain numbers
of the Annals amounting to this sum.

The Treasurer requested permission to transfer $662 from the
balance on hand to the Publication Fund, this amount being made
up of sundry fellowship and initiation fees, and Captain Casey's
two gifts : granted

Prof. James F. Kemp read a paper on

GO TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 1,

The Elaeolite Syenite near Beemerville, Sussex Co., N. J.

BY J. F. KEMP, COLUMBIA COLLEGE.

The elaeolite syenite exposure near Beemerville, N. J., is of great
interest, not alone because it is a rare and unique type of rock, but
also because it is quite remote from any other igneous outbreak
which is commensurate with it. Throughout the whole adjacent
region only .sedimentary and metamorphic rocks occur, with the ex-
ception of a few subordinate Ijasic dikes.

Elaeolite syenites are not abundant the world over, and are only
known in a few places on tliis continent. The other American- ex-
posures are at Montreal, Canada ; Litchfield, Maine ; Salem and
Marblehead, Massachusetts; and the region about Magnet Cove,
Arkansas. The hornblende syenites described by Hawes from New
Hampshire have also been lately shown to contain elaeolite by W.
S. Bayley. (Geol. Soc. of America, Columbus meeting, 1891.)

Basic dike rocks of a kind usually found in association with elae-
olite syenites have been recently .studied by the writer on Lake
Champlain, and it w^ould be quite natural if an exposure should be
found in the neighboring Adirondacks.^

Rocks with elaeolite or nepheline were announced years ago by
Hunt'' from Montreal, and Ro.senbusch speaks familiarly of the sy-
enite in his second edition, evidently from .specimens.^ Mr. Lacroix*
has also published a short preliminary note, and a subsequent fuller
account which appeared in 189L^ The syenites at Montreal were
intruded after the close of the Lower Silurian and before the Lower
Helderberg. The elaeolite syenite at Litchfield, Maine, has received
as yet but limited petrographic study, and the most that has been
written concerns its mineralogy. C. T. JacLson/ J. D. Whitney,"
W. Gibbs,« and F. W. Clarke* have written of them. The last-
named considers the sodalite as derived from elaeolite. Elaeolite
syenite in boulders at Salem, Massachusetts, has been briefly noted

1 .J. F. Kemp and V. F. Marsters, Trap Dikes of the Lake Champlain Val-
lev, etc. Annals, N. Y. Acad, of Sci., 1891.
'2 T. S. Hunt, Geol. Surv. Canada, 1883, p. 665.
3 Massige Gesteine, p. 90.
* A. Lacroix, Comptes Rendns, .June 2, 1890, p. 1152.

5 Syenite-nephelinique de Montreal, Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, 1889-90, p.
323.

6 C. T. .Jackson, Cancrinite, Nepheline, Zircon, from Litchfield, Me., Proc.
Geol. Soc, 1845, Am. Jour. Sci., ii, i, 119.

■^ J. D. Whitney, Poggendorf's Annalen, Ixx, 431.

^ W. Giblis, Poggendorf's Annalen, Ixxi, 559. ""

9 F. W. Clarke.'The Minerals of Litchfield, Me., A. J. S., iii, xxxi, 262. W.
S. Bayley's paper, read at the Columbus meeting G. S. A., Christmas, 1891,
will appear too late for comparisoti in this cojitri button.

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 61

by J. p. Kimball,^ and a zircon syenite (so-called) is mentioned by
Wadsworth from Marbleliead, Massachusetts.^

The Arkansas areas have long- been known as a prolific source of
many rare and intei'esting minerals, and in connection with these
and in the old ^-eological reports of the State some mention of the
rocks is made; but only the recent report of the late Dr. J. Francis
Williams treats the matter with thoroughness. Although usually
colored as Archaean on the geological maps in the past, they are
now known to be late Cretaceous.

The Beemerville area was first noted by E. Haeusser, an assistant
on the New Jersey survey under Dr. Kitchell, and from his notes a
brief description is taken for the New Jersey Report for 1868, p.
144. The notes are valuable as announcing the existence of the
great dike, but subsequent investigation has shown that the chief
minerals (hypersthene and labradorite) mentioned by Haeusser are
entirelv lacking. The true nature of the rock was thus overlooked
b}^ him. The remarks, however, were fruitful in bringing it to the
attention of Prof. B. K. Emerson,* who visited it in 1881 and
recognized the true character of the portion traversed by him.
Prof. f]merson seems, however, to have touched the dike at only
one or two points at the northern end ; and as it extends nearly
three miles in a northeast and southwest direction, much the greater
part has remained to be sul)jected to the microscope.

Several outcrops of a curious basic rock occur east of the syenite,
which were mentioned in the New Jersey Report for 1882, p. 67.
These were subsequently more fully investigated by myself* and
called porphyrite. Investigations and papers which have since ap-
peared have much enlarged our knowledge of the basic rocks associ-
ated with elaeolite syenites in other localities, and the true relations
of these so-called porphyrites are with the extreme basic non-feld-
spathic end of the lamprophyre division.

Rosenbusch has created the name monchiquite as applied to those
with much olivine from Brazil, and J. Francis Williams has called
others from Arkan.sas,with no olivine but with prevailing augite, four-
chite ; and I have named still another variety from Arkansas, with
great amounts of biotite, ouachitite. The Beemerville basic rocks are
ouachitite.

The elaeolite-syenite dike lies on the southeastern slope of the
Kittatinny Mountain ridge, and some eight miles west of Decker-
town, the nearest railway station. Deckertown is situated at the
crossing of the New York, Susquehanna and Western, by the Penn-

1 J. P. Kimball, On Sodalite and Elaf»olite from Salem, Mass., A. J. S., ii,
xxix. 6.5, quotes Gr. L. Streeter, in Prnc. Essex Inst., ii, 153.

2 Zircon syenite from MarMehead, Mass., Proc. B. S. N. H., xxi. 40(), 1880-82.

3 B. K. Emerson, On a Great Dike of Foyaite or Elaeolite Syenite in North-
western New .Jersey, A. .1. S., iii, xxiii, 302. A fall quotation of Haeusser's
notes is made in the paper.

* J. F. Kemp, On Certain Porphyrite Bosses in Northwestern New Jersey,
A. J. S., iii, xxxviii, 130.

62 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 1,

sylvania, Poughkeepsie and Boston, and is eight miles south of the
New Yorlv State line. The dike is two miles from the small town
of Beemerville, which is the nearest place of any importance. It
is fourteen miles northwest of Franklin Furnace, where the famous
zinc mines are located. The general valley of the Walkill River
extends from Deckertown westward, and is chiefly formed of Hud-
son River shales or slate, which, according to Mr. Barton's later in-
vestigations, should be called in part Trenton.^ Under these, east
of Deckertown, is a blue limestone, and overlying them uncon-
formably on the west is the Kittatinny conglomerate, which forms
the ridge of that name and corresponds to the Oneida conglomerate
of New York. The dike comes out along the contact of the con-
glomerate and the slate. They have been spoken of as unconform-
able in the New Jersey Report for 1868, but this is a mistake.

SECTION XX

The ridge, as shown on the map (which is an enlarged portion of
the New Jersey topographical map sheet No. 1), forms a steep hill-
side some six hundred feet above the neighboring valley. No stream
of any size runs down its sides across the syenite, and only small
gulches afford exposures. The dike forms a great terrace, and is,
in its broadest part, 300-400 yards across. Its outcrop is marked
by a lineal succession of conical hillocks, with small gullies between,
making rough topography. A depression runs along the western
edge of the dike, and is somewhat wet. This marshy land effectually
conceals the western contact. On the north the dike runs out as an
easterly spur on the ridge. Evidences of its baking action on the
shales run further, but no eruptive rock appears. It terminates
with a steep hillside covered by loose fragments. At the southern
extremity the eruptive rock appears along the Brick House Road,
which crosses the mountain, but beyond the road it cannot extend
far, as a great precipitous cliff of conglomerate called Decker's Rocks
comes in and diagonally cuts off its course. No outcrops appear
at the foot of the cliff, and the float material is all baked shale and
sandstone.

The dike varies considerably along its course. The tyjiical
elaeolite-syenite forms the northern third and the southern extremity,
but between these points its character changes. Near the northern

1 N. H. Dartou. A. J. S., iii, xxx, 452, and xxxi, 209.

1892.]

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

63

64 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [PEB. 1,

part of the middle third elaeolite ])orphyry appears, and forms a
most beautiful example of this rock. It may come from dikes, as
no actual exposures are available. Further south a basic holo-
crystalline rock comes in which is exposed in place ; and, as subse-
quently shown, contains less silica and more biotite than the typical
syenite. But on the extreme south where the highway crosses the
dike, the rock is much like that on the north. It is, however,
greatly decomposed, and fresh, firm pieces are hard to find. The
basic lamprophyric rocks outcrop on the east, at the several points
shown on the map, and extend to a distance of several miles with
isolated outcrops.

The typical characteristic elaeolite-syenite of the north is the rock
described by Emerson, and little remains to be added to his diag-
nosis. It outcrops as small hillocks in the woods, which are
covered with great boulders, loosened by disintegration. The
commonest rock consists of large pinkish orthoclase crystals, which
may, in the coarsest variety, be two inches long, and are twinned
on the Carlsbad law. In the interstices of these the elaeolite and
aegirine are chiefly found, and far less often they occur in the slide
as inclusions in the feldspar. The orthoclase also appears as small
rod-shaped, once-twinned crystals associated with the elaeolite.
The elaeolite is allotriomorphic in irregular masses. Emerson
notes in addition a rare and earlier generation of smaller idiomorphic
crystals. The elaeolite is largely changed to cancrinite, which ap-
pears in mosaics of irregular individuals, and is the only alteration
product which I have detected. No zeolites appear. The cancrin-
ite seems to have been overlooked by Emerson. Sodalite is not
infrequent, and forms, at times, an inclusion of hexagonal outline
in the orthoclase. Aegirine is associated with the elaeolite and
forms small prismatic crystals. In the slides the}^ are a fraction of
a millimeter in diameter and several times as long. They are
seldom, if ever, terminated, but have irregular ends. The pleo-
chroism is strong, being two closely similar shades of grass-green
along the axes of elasticity, which nearly correspond with axial c
and h (= n and b of Kosenl)usch, or c and b of Descloizeaux re-
spectively), and brownish-yellow on axial a (= C of Rosenbuseh
and a of Descloizeaux). An optic axis shows plainly in sections
near OP (001), and affords a negative figure with the quarter undu-
lation plate. Several large crystals were picked out of a decom-
posing syenite, and the prism angle was measured on a Fuess No.
II. goniometer. The faces were not very good, and necessitated
the employment of the Websk}^ delta ocular. Three of the best
readings were 8t° 14', 87° 12', 87° 33', corresponding closely
with the 87° usually given for aegirine, and with the 87° 13'
(92° 87') given by Emerson. The orthopinacoid is also present.
A specimen was found in which the aegirine prisms reached a length
of an inch or more, and had a marked i)arallel arrangement with
elongated orthoclase crystals, like a very coarse flow structure. The
same thing has been remarked by Brogger in Norwegian exposures

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 65

and referred to this cause rather than to pressure. A deep reddish-
brown biotite is also occasionally present, but is far more abundant
toward the south of this upper third of the dike. Its colors are
those of the biotite commonly seen in nepheline rocks, but it has a
well-marked diver^-ence of the optic axes. It affords an excellent
percussion (schla^) fif>-ure, and the plane of the optic axis is parallel
to the principal ray (010), proving- it a mica of the second order,
as is to be expected. It occurs in irreg-ular shreds, and is older
than the aeg-irine. The most micaceous normal sj^enite is a short
distance south of Thomas Conway's house. Titanite is usually
present, and from decomposed syenite small crystals (0.5 mm.) can
be picked out which show good faces. The}^ are honey-yellow
in color. Professor Rosenbusch, to whom I have sent a suite of
specimens and with whom I have had some correspondence, re-
marks the passage of the titanite into bordering rutile nets. He
also has noted the occasional presence of fluorite, which has escaped
my notice. Small amounts of magnetite are generally seen, and
pyrite is common.

A partial analysis (I.) of number 34, which was collected as nearly
as I could determine from the point visited by Professor Emerson,
was kindly made by Mr. F. W. Love, of Cornell University. The
complete results were not obtained in time to insert, but will be dis-
tributed in the reprints. Column II is the ditroite of Hungary
(Feliner, Verb. d. k. k. Geol. Reichsanstalt, 1867, 286, quoted by
Rosenbusch, Tsch. Mitth., xi, 144, Taf. 1). Column III is the
elaeolite-syenite of Brazil (Machado, Tsch. Mitth., ix, 334). Col-
umn IV. is the elaeolite-syenite of Arkansas (J. F. Williams,
Jf^neous Rocks of Ark., p. 81). Column V is the Norwegian
elaeolite-syenite (Brog-ger, Syenitpegraatitgiinge, p. 33).

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

Loss

. 3.512

1.6

3.60

1.88

0.22

SiO, .

. 50.36

56.3

52.75

59.70

51.90

AlA .

. 19.34

24.1

22.55

18.85

22.. 54

Fe,03 .

. 6.94

2.0

3.65

4.85

4.03

FeO .

— .

—

—

—

3.15

CaO .

. 3.43

0.7

1.85

1.34

3.11

M^O .

0.1

0.15

0.68

1.97

K.,0

6.8

7.05

5.97

4.72

Na^O .

—

9.3

8.10

6.29

8.18

100.9 99.70 99.56 99.82

It thus appears that the Beemerville rock is rather basic in its
chemical composition. Several pounds of the rock were crushed
fine and panned for small minerals of high specific gravity, but only
aegirine, titanite, magnetite, and a little apatite resulted. Emerson
found a variety that was nearly pure elaeoli c, and much the same
has been met by me along the contact just above Thou)as Conway's
house. The rock is very finely crystalline and contains wavy lines
of aeij-irine and biotite, due to flow structure. The biotite, at times,

66 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 1,

resembles a secondary filling of a crack, as the plates lie across the
long direction of the flow lines. A short distance from the contact,
however, the dike becomes the coarsely crystalline syenite and extra
rich elaeolitic portions could only be extremely local.

I searched carefully and in man\^ places for endialyte or eucolite,
but none appeared. Professor Rosenbusch notes small crystals of
a questionable mineral in a slide of a finel}' crystalline variety sent
him, as perhaps one of these. One or the other may be discovered
in the future. In the writer's opinion it would not be worth while
to make separate varieties of the rocks with aegirine and of those
with liiotite, as there is hardly a pure specimen of either. Experi-
ence in this occurrence thus corroborates the general conclusions
laid down by Rosenbusch about the subdivisions of the elaeolite-
syenites. Small hornblende crystals regarded as arfvedsonite are
noted by Emerson, but they have escaped my attention if present
in my slides.

At the middle point of 4 C on the map the character of the dike
changes, as is indicated by the float fragments, for no actual expo-
sures occur. Pofphyritic facies appear, and an excellent elaeolite-
porphyry was found. By an odd coincidence the same kind of rock
was discovered at almost the same time by the late Dr. J. Francis
Williams, with whom the writer was in active correspondence, in
Saline Co., Arkansas, making the first American records of this
rare rock species simultaneous in two widely separated regions
(see Igneous Rocks of Ark., p. 149). The Beemerville porphyry
is dark greenish in color, and has great hexagonal phenocrysts of
elaeolite up to an inch in cross section. The slides show a ground
mass perfectly typical of the dikes recently called tinguaite by
Rosenbusch, from the Brazilian occurrences. They furnish a struc-
ture among the elaeolite dike rocks closely analogous to the phono-
lites of the effusives, and the dikes were indeed called phonolites by
Derby, their original discoverer.^ The ground mass consists essen-
tially of elaeolite surcharged with microscopic aegirine needles.
Orthoclase is present and many crystals of a very peculiar pyroxene.
This is light yellow in color, with a pleochroic change along axial h
to a pinkish shade. It is idiomorphic, and has an extinction that
may reach 44°. Professor Rosenbusch estimates the angle of the
optic axes at about 55°. An optic axis emerges not greatly inclined
to the basal section.

Closely associated with the pyroxene is a reddish-brown nearly
isotropic mineral, of high index, that is much Mke perofskite. A few
shreds of biotite are also seen.

Another porphyritic rock occurs along this portion of the dike,
which lacks the large phenocrysts of elaeolite. It has, however,
others of feld.spar, and in the slide shows the same tinguaitic base

1 0. A. Derby, On Nepheline Rocks in Brazil with Special Reference to the
Association of Phonolite and Foyaite, Q. J. G. S., August, 1887.

1892.]

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

61

with a much more prismatic development of the elaeolite in the
ground mass.

An analysis yielded the results in column I. Column II is of
the elaeolite porph}^'}^ from Magnet Cove (J. F. Williams, Igneous
Rocks of Arkansas, p. 261).

Loss
SiO.,
TiO„

Al-A

Fe,03

FeO

CaO

MgO

K„0

I.

II.

1.14

2.06

45.18

44.50

—

1.40

23.31

22.96

6.11

6.84

4.(32

8.65

1.45

1.65

5.945

4.83

11.1«5

6.70

98.92

99.59

The rock is thus more basic than the syenite, and illustrates a
change to a more basic composition as the south end of the dike is
approached. It is very basic also when considered as an analogue
of phonolite, and is nearer the theralites. With some variations it
has other close points of correspondence with the analysis quoted
by its side.

The sections of the New Jersey phonolitic or tinguaitic specimens
have been compared with a set which were made from a suite of the
corresponding Brazilian varieties which are in the rock collections of
Columbia College. They were presented some years ago by Mr.
D(!rbv. The resemblance is most striking and indeed so close that
the slides might readily be confounded. The New Jersey examples
show no tendency to cleave in thin plates like ordinary phonolites
and like some of the Brazilian examples, but break in angular frag-
ments ; hence the name elaeolite-porphyry seemed appropriate and
was employed above. The correlation of many types in the two
exposures is remarkable.

Still further south, at a point half-way between the last and the
southern extremity of the dike, a prospect hole has been blasted by
some one in the top of a conical hillock. It has opened up a cavity
some few feet deep, and brought out a quantity of perfectly fresh
material. The rock is rather finely crystalline, dark in color, and
very tough. It looks like a fine mica diorite, and has a great pro-
portion of dark silicates. The sections exhibit elaeolite, orthoclase,
aegirine, biotite, titanite, many minute zircons and apatites. Ex-
cept the minute inclusions, all the components are allotriomor-
phic. The aegirine and biotite especialh^ appear in shreds and small
irregular masses. No cancrinite is present, and from this fact, as
the rock is perfectly fresh, the conclusion is unavoidable that the
cancrinite to the north is secondary and derived from the elaeolite.
Careful search was made for plagioclase in the slides, yet none

68 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [F£B. 1,

appears. The following analysis shows how basic the rock is, and
that the silica is reinarkablv low for one with orthoclase : —

FeO.

Less.

SiOo.

ALO3.

FeoOg.

CaO.

MgO.

KoO. NaoO.

Total.

Specimen 30 .

. 0.45

41.37

16.25

16.93

12.35

4.57

3.98 4.18

100.08

Magnet Cove .

. 5.20

38.93

15.41

9.34

16.49

5.57

1.78 5.27

In the last analysis (J. F. Williams, Igneous Rocks of Arkansas,
p. 220), there is" additional TiO, l.r.2,>eS, 0.89, P.^^ 0.35, and
traces of several other elements, making a total of 100. o1. The
specimen had evidently suffered alteration, but shows some close
analogies with the first analysis. It is an elaeolite mica S3*enite,
the Cove type of Williams. The locality of specimen 30 is near the
northeast corner of 5 B of map.

Still further south, at the extreme end of the dike, syenite occurs
like that at the north. Along the highway it has crumbled away
to sand, as was noted by Haeusser, and only by searching can
fresh material be found. The slides show it to be like the syenite
of the northern end, and cancrinite again appears. The porphyritic
type is also to be had in float material.

We may say of the dike in general that it is normal elaeolite-
syenite at its extremes, but that it becomes more basic toward the
southern portion. It may consist of several different outflows
along the same line. It uniformly contains aegirine and more
especially in the contact and southern parts has biotite. It is pene-
trated in places by subordinate dikes of elaeolite porphyry. The
analyses bring out forcibly the extraordinary range in composition
which elaeolite-.syenite may take, running down into the extreme
basic end of the series of rocks. The same thing is shown in Ar-
kansas, to an even greater degree, by J. F. Williams. This is only
rendered possible by the intermingling of orthoclase with such ba.sic
minerals as nepheline and sodalite and by relatively abundant bisili-
cates. The rock has been consistently called elaeolite-syenite through-
out the text, because it was studied in close association with J. F.
Williams, by whom the name was preferred for the Arkansas expo-
sures and is used in work already published. With the decadence
of the time element in petrographic classification, there is no good
reason (nor, indeed, ever was) for preserving the names elaeolite
and nepheline for the same mineral, and it would be far better to
use the latter term, which is recognized by the mineralogists. As
is done b}'' the French, the whole group might better be called
nepheline-syenite.

It is unfortunate that the Beemerville exposure is situated in a
region where no streams of any size cross it — where no railroads or
artificial cuts in all probaliility will ever open it up — and that it is
quite densely covered with woods over almost its entire extent.
The conditions are unfavorable for good exposures.

The AsHociafed Basic llorls. — As already remarked, it is a
curious fact that peculiar basic dikes are almost univer.^^ally asso-

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 69

ciated with elaeolite-syenite. This is true of the localities in the
Monchiqiie Moimtaiiis of Portugal, of the Norwegian exposures,
of those in Brazil, at Montreal, Mag-net Cove, Salem (as recentlv
discovered by J. E. Woltf), and Beeraerville, and it is possible
that they may yet be found in the other American localities. The
dikes lying outside the syenite areas in Arkansas have been re-
cently described by the writer, and in the paper which has just
appeared in the annual report of the Arkansas State Survey for
1890, vol. ii, p. .392, a review is given of those elsewhere. Along
the eastern side of the Beemerville syenite a number of such out-
breaks are found. Their determination as porphyrite in the Ameri-
can Journal of Science for 1888 has since been revised. Althoug-h
the avaihible material is much decomposed, they were shown to
consist of large biotite phenocrysts with somewhat smaller and less
abundant augite, in a groundmass mostly changed to calcite, but
which was thought to have had close affinities with nepheline.
Some plagioclase also appeared as a constituent of the groundmass.
The rocks are dense and black and belong in the Lamprophyre divi-
sion. In the Arkansas examples much fresher material was af-
forded, and this, too, from about 75 or 100 dikes. There is almost
no definite nepheline, l)ut the minerals are in a glass of no great
abundance. It is probable that tliis was the original condition of
these basic dikes at Beemerville. The Arkansas dikes, rich in bio-
tite (and in instances this forms half the rock), were named ouachi-
tite, from the Ouachita River, along which they occur. Macro-
scopically, the ouachitite is indistinguishable from the alnoite of
Tbrnebohm (cited from the original Swedish by Rosenbusch, Mass.
Gest., p. 804), the Norwegian melilite rock, but they contain ho
trace of melilite.

The New Jersey rocks are mostly ouachitite, with some four-
chite, and the names are accepted from the later developed locality
on account of the fresher material.

There is some underlying genetic connection between the elaeo-
lite-syenite and these other basic rocks, but what it is I feel at a
loss to say. Rosenbusch thinks them due to a splitting of his foy-
aite magma. Other dikes occur at a distance of ten or fifteen miles;
a number are shown in the map, A. J. S., Aug. 1889, p. 131. The
one called mica-dialiase by Emerson, from Franklin Furnace, has
long been known, and others of the same sort have recently been
determined by G. H. Williams for F. L. Nason, in the last annual
Report of the New Jersey Survey. Rosenbusch, however, says in
a recent letter to me, regarding some specimens sent him of the
Franklin Furnace dike, that there is nothing of the true ojjhitic
structure of diabase in them, but that they are a lamprophyre of
unusual type, and near the caraptonites. My own observations
would substantiate this view.

I have also a curious dike from Hamburg, north of Franklin
Furnace, that is not yet mentioned in print and that is closely re-
lated to the theralites." It cuts blue limestone and has some curious

70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE [fEB. 1,

spherulites like the kug-el minettes of the Germans. Mr. Derby,
however, at once remarked their likeness to altered leucite crystals
now being- studied by himself and Hus.sak in Brazil. I am not
prepared to speak authoritatively on them as yet.

The dike is doubtless connected with the syenite eruption. It
contains a reddish biotite, the same yellow pyroxene mentioned in
the elaeolite porphyry, aegirine, titanite, feldspar, analcite second-
ary from nepheline, and nepheline. It is satisfactorily fresh.

Emerson mentions a crystalline mass of calcite, biotite, and mag-
netite, from a point above D. B. Roloson's, which he regards as the
result of contact metamorphism. I have been to the same locality,
and have found the ouachitite further up the hill. So far as I know,
limestone is unknown in the shale of the vicinity, and I regard the
specimen in question as a thoroughly altered ouachitite.

Contact Metamorphism. — The intrusion of this great body of
rock has naturally exerted a powerful influence on the neighboring
shales. Haeusser and Emerson remark this effect at the distance of
a mile to the east, and the same was noted bv myself.

Eaierson describes a specimen from the north as resembling a
claystone porphyry. In a felsitic groundmass are opaque Carlsbad
twins of orthoclase, six to eight millimeters across, with chlorite,
small rhombs of calcite and cubes of pyrite. The groundmass with
high powers was resolved into line scales of muscovite. Some in-
cipient crystallizations suggested chiastolite crystals by the collec-
tion of colored hydrocarbons.

My slides show a great development of biotite in the hornstone of
the contact, and this gives the dark color to the rock. The leaves
in the densest specimens are of extreme minuteness, sinking to
0.001 of a millimeter. In others they are coarser. They lie paral-
lel and suggest the foliation of a mica schist; but they give no evi-
dence of this to the macroscopic examination. Quartz is also present
and probably feldspathic matter.

Along the Brick House Road, on the extreme south, one of the
best opportunities is afforded for the study of the contact effects
The baked flinty shales outcrop in the road in places and appear to
be seamed by narrow apophy.sae from the main dike.

Slides of other shales gathered from |ioints apparently near the
dike show only a clastic mass of very fine grain, and as soon as
a distance of 200 to 300 yards is reached, or even less, unless a
ouachitite dike has been intruded, there seems to be no noticeable
mineralogical change, although the greater density and hardness
are very apparent.

The ouachitites come out as eruptive breccia in part, and are not
to be confused with contact influences. Some slides of very fine
slate from near the contact with them show no mineralogical change,
and in general the metamorphism seems rather physical than mine-
ralogical.

The contact influence on the Kittatinny sandstone and conglome-
rate is not discernible. The clastic character remains unaltered.

1892.] NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Tl

although to ordinary observation the rocks seem harder. A ledge
was found that could not have been more than 15 3^ards from the
syenite, but the slide shows no appreciable mineralogical change.
The sandstone is, however, rendered so crystalline at times, that
it is difficult to detect its clastic character without a thin section.

Connection beticeen present topography and crystalline struc-
ture. — Professor W. M. Davis has been giving much attention of
late to the topographic development of this region.^ and the approxi-
mate geological dates of many of the upheavals and drainage systems
have been pointed out. The conclusions have a certain bearing on
the age of the syenite. The great dike exhibits over its outcrop a
coarsely crystalline structure except in the case of the porphyry, which
is probabh" a subordinate narrow intrusion. The orthoclase crystals
even reach verv large size, and the granitoid character of the rock
indicates that it crystallized at a considerable depth, and was in no
sense a surface flow. The outcrop stands now at the level of what
Davis calls the Schooley peneplain, which marks the base-level of a
post-Triassic system of drainage. The dike must have suffered the
erosion of this time, and perhaps of earlier cycles in order to expose
its coarsely crystalline portions, and it is reasonable to place its in-
trusion at an earlier period. But as regards its age we are only
able to say, that it is later than the Oneida conglomerate at the
beginning of the Upper Silurian, and before the Triassic or late
Triassic. During this long interval, there occurred the Carbo